Conclusion

What, then, broadly speaking, can we learn by studying Homer in con­junction with Plato, Machiavelli, and Nietzsche about the history of political philosophy and about philosophy itself? In the first place, such a study confirms what a study of Homer alone indicates, namely, that Homer was a philosophic thinker, whose religious skepticism, recognition of a natural order apart from divine will, critique of the political and moral life of action, and contemplation of the nature of all things identify him as one who lived the philosophic life of the mind.

In the second place, a study of Homer together with Plato, Machiavelli, and Nietzsche reveals the tremendous theoretical influence of Homer on these three foundational thinkers and the illuminating role that Homer plays in the thought of each thinker. Plato’s Socrates identifies Homer as the educator of the Greeks and therefore the educator of Socrates himself, of Plato, as well as of all of the statesmen, poets, sophists, and philosophic characters who appear in the Platonic dialogues. Moreover, the simple fact that Homer is mentioned more frequently in the dialogues than any other individual who is not an interlocutor and that Homer’s verses are repeatedly recited and discussed by Socrates indicates how thoroughly Socrates and Plato have studied and reflected upon Homer, and how profoundly they have been shaped by his education. Socrates and Plato are products of Homer’s philosophic education, are philosophic students of Homer, and the fact that they are radical critics of Homer - above all concerning the need for education to strengthen reason against the dan­gerously powerful passions and hence the need to present an explicitly philosophic model at the center of education - does not at all preclude their also being his students.

Machiavelli never mentions Homer by name, but does identify him in the Prince as, in stark contrast with Plato, the most effective and wisest ancient teacher of princes. Homer is therefore a model for Machiavelli, who also aspires to teach princes, but Homer is his rival as well, insofar as Machiavelli seeks to surpass him. What is more, Homer is a most revealing foil for Machiavelli, for a comparison of the two pinpoints key similarities and differences in their accounts of virtue and in their understanding of the relation between politics and philosophy. A study of Homer and Machiavelli highlights above all a significant and surprising agreement between the two concerning the best education for human excellence, one which focuses on the political life, points to the philo­sophic life as superior to the political life, but does not explicitly present the philosopher as a model to be imitated.

Nietzsche celebrates Homer as the founder of the greatest human culture heretofore, the one most in harmony with human nature, espe­cially the natural passions for victory, erotic bliss, and wisdom. Insofar as Nietzsche identifies Homer as one who is profoundly irreligious, who founds a culture that both celebrates humanity - including most emphat­ically the human mind - and discourages a reliance on divine providence, Nietzsche identifies Homer as the philosophic founder of Greek culture. A study of Homer and Nietzsche underscores the tremendous achieve­ment of the Homeric education, in enabling human nature to flourish in all realms, including most emphatically philosophy. Such a study also clarifies Nietzsche’s often harsh critique of Plato for founding a new, Platonic education - a Platonism - that presents the philosopher as a defender of morality and religion and that thereby obscures the essentially skeptical nature of philosophy. A study of Homer and Nietzsche ultim­ately reveals, however, a surprising agreement between Nietzsche and Plato in one crucial respect - in their contention, in opposition to both Homer and Machiavelli, that the best education in human excellence must explicitly present the philosopher as the exemplary human being.

Finally, a study of these four philosophic thinkers together shows that there are many ways of living a philosophic life. As Plato’s Protagoras observes, all sophists, all wise human beings prior to him, hid their human, rational wisdom, behind a mask of one kind or another: They sought “to make a disguise for themselves and to cover themselves with it, some with poetry, as in the case of Homer and Hesiod and Simonides, others in turn with mystic rites and prophecies” (Protagoras 316d3-9). Plato’s Socrates adds the observation that genuine philosophers at times “take on the appearances of statesmen” (Sophist 216c4-d2). Our study enables us to appreciate these observations more fully. A philosopher may present oneself in many guises - as a divinely inspired singer or poet, as an adviser of princes and republics, as a public champion of morality and religion, as a public immoralist and atheist. These choices depend on many factors, as Machiavelli especially suggests. They depend on the political, religious, and intellectual circumstances one finds oneself in: for example, surrounded by political instability or by political stagnation, confronted by a deadly religious hostility to philosophy or by a danger­ously confused acceptance of philosophy. These choices also depend on one’s own nature: for example, one’s gift for political deliberation or poetic imagination in addition to one’s passion and capacity for theoret­ical understanding. Fundamentally there are two choices in how philoso­phers present themselves to their societies and especially to their students and potential students: openly as a philosopher, or in a concealed way, as something other than a philosopher, explicitly or implicitly - and there are powerful arguments for each of these choices. It is my hope that, theoretically speaking, this study may help to clarify our understanding of what philosophy is. It is also my hope that, more practically, this study may broaden our understanding of who a philosopher is and may inspire us at least to consider seriously the possibility that, not only such self­proclaimed philosophers as Socrates or Nietzsche are philosophers, but a number of poets, statesmen, historians, and even theologians of the past may also be philosophers in their own right, albeit in the reticent manner of Homer.

Acampora, Christa.

Adam, James, ed. 1963. The Republic of Plato. 2 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Adkins, Arthur. i960. Merit and Responsibility: A Study in Greek Values. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Ahrensdorf, Peter J. 1995. The Death of Socrates and the Life of Philosophy: An Interpretation of Plato’s Phaedo. Albany: State University of New York Press.

2014. Homer on the Gods and Human Virtue: Creating the Foundations of Classical Civilization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Annas, Julia. 1981. An Introduction to Plato’s Republic. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

1982. “Plato on the Triviality of Literature.” In Plato on Beauty, Wisdom and the Arts. Eds. Julius Moravcsik and Philip Temko. Totwa, NJ: Rowman & Littlefield. Pp. 1-28.

Armstrong, C. B. 1969. “The Casualty Lists in the Trojan War.” Greece and Rome 16:30-31.

Ball, Terence. 1984. “The Picaresque Prince: Reflections on Machiavelli and Moral Change.” Political Theory 12:521-536.

Barberi-Squarotti, Giorgio. 1966. La forma tragica del “Principe” e altri saggi sui Machiavelli. Florence: Olschki.

Barfield, Raymond. 2011. The Ancient Quarrel between Philosophy and Poetry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Bartlett, Robert C. 20i6. Sophistry and Political Philosophy: Protagoras’ Challenge to Socrates. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Beiner, Ronald. 2018. Dangerous Minds: Nietzsche, Heidegger, and the Return of the Far Right. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

Benardete, Seth. 1989. Socrates’ Second Sailing: On Plato’s Republic. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

1997. The Bow and the Lyre. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

2005. Achilles and Hector: The Homeric Hero. South Bend, IN: St. Augustine’s Press.

Benner, Erica. 2009. Machiavelli’s Ethics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Berlin, Isaiah. 2013. “The Originality of Machiavelli.” In Against the Current: Essays in the History of Ideas.

Black, Robert. 2013. Machiavelli. New York: Routledge.

Bloom, Allan. 1991. “Interpretive Essay.” In The Republic of Plato. 2nd ed. Trans. Allan Bloom. New York: Basic Books. Pp. 305-436.

Bluck, R. S. 1982. Plato’s Phaedo. Indianapolis, IN: Library of Liberal Arts.

Bolotin, David. 1989. “The Concerns of Odysseus: An Introduction to Homer’s Odyssey.” Interpretation 17:41-57.

1995. “The Critique of Homer and the Homeric Heroes in Plato’s Republic.” In Political Philosophy and the Human Soul: Essays in Memory of Allan Bloom. Eds. Michael Palmer and Thomas L. Pangle. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Pp. 83-94.

Bostock, David. 1986. Plato’s Phaedo. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Bowra, C. M. 1977. Tradition and Design in the Iliad. Westport, CN: Greenwood Press.

Bruell, Christopher. 20³4. Aristotle as Teacher. South Bend, IN: St. Augustine’s Press.

Burd, L. Arthur. 1891. Il Principe by Machiavelli. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Burkert, Walter. 1985. Greek Religion. Trans. John Raffan. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Burnet, John. 1962. Greek Philosophy. Part I: Thales to Plato. London: MacMillan and Co.

Burns, Timothy. 1996. “Friendship and Divine Justice in Homer’s Iliad.” In Poets, Princes, and Private Citizens. Eds. Joseph M. Knippenberg and Peter A. Lawler. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Pp. 289-303.

Burns, Timothy W. 2015. “Philosophy and Poetry: A New Look at an Old Quarrel.” American Political Science Review 109:326-338.

Buxton, Richard. 2004. “Similes and Other Likenesses.” In The Cambridge Companion to Homer. Ed. Robert Fowler. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 139-155.

Cherniss, Harold. 1932. “On Plato’s Republic X, 597B.” American Journal of Philology 53:233-242.

Cicero. 1975. De Officiis. Ed. and Trans. Walter Miller. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

1993. On Duties. Trans. M. T. Griffin and E. M. Atkins.

Clarke, Michael. 2004. “Manhood and Heroism.” In The Cambridge Companion to Homer. Ed. Robert Fowler. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 74^-9⁰.

Clay, Jenny Strauss. 1983. The Wrath of Athena: Gods and Men in the Odyssey. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

2002. “Dying Is Hard to Do.” Colby Quarterly 38:7-16.

2oio. Homer’s Trojan Theater: Space, Vision, and Memory in the Iliad. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Coby, J. Patrick. 1999. Machiavelli’s Romans: Liberty and Greatness in the Discourses on Livy. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.

Colish, Marcia. 1978. “Cicero’s De Officiis and Machiavelli’s Prince.” The Sixteenth Century Journal 9:80-93.

Connell, William J. 2011. “New Light on Machiavelli’s Letter to Vettori, 10 December, 1513.” In Europe and Italy: Studies in Honor of Giorgio Chittolini. Florence: Florence University Press. Pp. 93-127.

Conway, Daniel. 1997. Nietzsche’s Dangerous Game: Philosophy in the Twilight of the Idols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Cornford, Francis M. 1935. Plato’s Theory of Knowledge. London: Routledge.

Crotty, Kevin. 1994. The Poetics of Supplication: Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

Dannhauser, WernerJ. 1974. Nietzsche’s View of Socrates. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

Danto, Arthur. 1986. The Philosophical Disenfranchisement of the Arts. New York: Columbia University Press.

Deneen, Patrick J. 2000. The Odyssey of Political Theory. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

Derenne, Eudore. 1976. Les proces d’impiete intentes aux philosophes a Athenes au Vme et au IVme siecles avant J-C. New York: Arno Press.

Detwiler, Bruce. 1990. Nietzsche and the Politics of Aristocratic Radicalism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Dimmock, George E. 1989. The Unity of the Odyssey. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press.

Dodds, E. R. 1973. The Greeks and the Irrational. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Dorter, Kenneth. 1982. Plato’s Phaedo: An Interpretation. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

Edmundson, Mark. 1995. Literature against Philosophy, Plato to Derrida: A Defence of Poetry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Edwards, Mark W. 1987. Homer: Poet of the Iliad. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

1991. The Iliad: A Commentary, V: Books 17-20. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Erasmus, Desiderius. 1986. Ten Colloquies. Trans. Craig R. Thompson. New York: MacMillan.

Ferrari, G. R. F. 1989. “Plato and Poetry.” In The Cambridge History of Literary Criticism. Vol. 1: Classical Criticism. Ed. George A. Kennedy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 92-148.

Finsler, Georg. 1908. “Homer in der italienischen Renaissance.” Neue Jahrbiicher fur des klassische Altertum 21:196-207.

Fortier, Jeremy. 2020. The Challenge of Nietzsche: How to Approach His Thought. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Franco, Paul. 2011. Nietzsche’s Enlightenment: The Free-Spirit Trilogy of the Middle Period. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Friedlander, Paul. 1969. Plato. Vols. 1-3. Trans. H. Meyerhoff. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Gadamer, Hans-Georg. 1980. Dialogue and Dialectic: Eight Hermeneutical Studies on Plato. Trans. P. Christopher Smith. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Gagarin, Michael. 1987. “Morality in Homer.” Classical Philology 82:285-306. Gallop, David. 1975. Plato’s Phaedo. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Gambino, Giacomo. 1996. “Nietzsche and the Greeks: Identity, Politics, and Tragedy.” Polity 28:415-444.

Geerken, John H. 1970. “Homer’s Image of the Hero in Machiavelli: A Comparison of Arete and Virtu.” Italian Quarterly 14:45-90.

Gilbert, Felix. 1984. Machiavelli and Guicciardini: Politics and History in Sixteenth Century Florence. New York: Norton.

Gillespie, Michael Allen. 2017. Nietzsche’s Final Teaching. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Gilson, Etienne. 1944. La Philosophie au Moyen Age. Paris: R. Bussiere.

Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von. 1974. The Autobiography of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. Trans. J. Oxenford. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Graziosi, Barbara. 2016. Homer. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Griffin, Jasper. 1980. Homer on Life and Death. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1995. Homer: Iliad IX. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

2004. “The Speeches.” In The Cambridge Companion to Homer. Ed. Robert Fowler. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 156-167.

Griswold, Charles L. 1981. “The Ideas and the Criticism of Poetry in Plato’s Republic, Book 10.” Journal of the History of Philosophy 19:135-150.

Grote, George. 1888. Plato and the Other Companions of Socrates. Vol. ι. London: John Murray.

Hackforth, R. 1955. Plato’s Phaedo. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Hall, Edith. 2008. The Return of Ulysses: A Cultural History of the Odyssey. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Halliwell, Stephen. 2005. Plato, Republic 10. Haverton, PA: Oxbow Books.

2011. “Antidotes and Incantations: Is There a Cure for Poetry in Plato’s Republic?” In Plato and the Poets. Eds. Pierre Destree and Fritz-Gregor Herrmann. Leiden: Brill. Pp. 24I-266.

Haubold, Johannes. 2000. Homer’s People: Epic Poetry and Social Formation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Hegel, Georg. 1955. Lectures on the History of Philosophy. Vols. 1-2. Trans. E. S. Haldane and F. Stimson. New Jersey: Humanities Press.

Homer. 1976. Opera: Odysseae. Vols. III-IV. Ed. Thomas W. Allen. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

1988. Opera: Iliadis. Vols. I-II. Eds. David B. Munro and Thomas W. Allen. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

1992. The Iliad. Trans. Richmond Lattimore. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

1999. The Odyssey. Trans. Richmond Lattimore. New York: Perennial Classics.

Horkheimer, Max and Adorno, Theodor W. 1972. Dialectic of Enlightenment. Trans. John Cumming. New York: Herder and Herder.

Hubbard, Thomas K. 1992. “Nature and Art in the Shield of Achilles.” Arion 2:16-41.

Jaeger, Werner. 1943. Paideia: The Ideals of Greek Culture. Vols. 1-2. Trans. Gilbert Highet. New York: Oxford University Press.

1947. The Theology of the Early Greek Philosophers. Trans. E. Robinson. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

1961. Early Christianity and Greek Paideia. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.

Kaufmann, Walter. 2013. Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist. 5th ed. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Kearns, Emily. 2004. “The Gods in the Homeric Epics.” In The Cambridge Companion to Homer. Ed. Robert Fowler. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 59-73.

Keyt, David. 1963. “The Fallacies in Phaedo ro2a-ro7b.” Phronesis^67-172.

Kirk, G. S. 1962. The Songs of Homer. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1974. The Nature of Greek Myths. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.

Kitto, H. D. 1966. Poesis: Structure and Thought. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Klibansky, Raymond. 1939. The Continuity of the Platonic Tradition during the Middle Ages. London: Warburg Institute.

Kundmueller, Michelle. 2019. Homer’s Hero: Human Excellence in the Iliad and the Odyssey. Albany: State University of New York Press.

Lampert, Laurence. 1986. Nietzsche’s Teaching: An Interpretation of Thus Spoke Zarathustra. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

1993. Nietzsche and Modern Times: A Study of Bacon, Descartes, and Nietzsche. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

2001. Nietzsche’s Task: An Interpretation of Beyond Good and Evil. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Lateiner, Donald. 2004. “The Iliad: AnUnpredictable Classic.” In The Cambridge Companion to Homer. Ed. Robert Fowler. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 11-30.

Levin, Susan B. 2000. The Ancient Quarrel between Philosophy and Poetry Revisited: Plato and the Greek Literary Tradition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Lloyd-Jones, Hugh. 1971. The Justice of Zeus. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Lukacs, Georg. 1977. The Theory of the Novel: A Historico-philosophical Essay on the Forms of Great Epic Literature. Trans. Anna Bostock. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Lutz, Mark. 2006. “Wrath and Justice in Homer’s Achilles.” Interpretation 33:111-132.

Macaulay, Thomas Babington. 1849. “Machiavelli.” In Critical and Historical Essays. Vol. 1. London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans. Pp. 62-112.

Machiavelli, Niccold. 1966. Il Principe: Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio. Ed. Piero Gallardo. Milan: Edizioni per Il Club del Libro.

1981. Lettere. Ed. Franco Gaeta. Milan: Giangiacomo Feltrinelli.

1996a. The Discourses on Livy. Trans. Harvey C. Mansfield and Nathan Tarcov. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

1996b. Machiavelli and His Friends: Their Personal Correspondence. Trans. and eds. James. B. Atkinson and David Sices. DeKalb: Northern Illinois Press.

1998. The Prince. 2nd ed. Trans. Harvey C. Mansfield. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Mansfield, Harvey C. 1996. Machiavelli’s Virtue. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Marrou, Henri Irenee. 1981. Histoire de l’education dans l’Antiquite. Vol. 1: Le monde grec. 7th ed. Paris: Editions du Seuil.

Martinez, Ronald L. 2000. “Tragic Machiavelli.” In The Comedy and Tragedy of Machiavelli. Ed. Vickie B. Sullivan. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Pp. 102-119.

McCormick, John. 2018. Reading Machiavelli. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Meier, Heinrich. 2019. Nietzsches Vermachtnis: Ecce Homo und Der Antichrist. Munich: C. H. Beck.

2021. WhatIs Nietzsche’s Zarathustra?: A Philosophical Confrontation. Trans. Justin Gottschalk. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Meredith, Thomas. 2020. “The Radical Goals of Slave Morality in Nietzsche’s On the Genealogy of Morality.” Review of Politics 82:247-268.

Mill, John Stuart. 1957. Autobiography. New York: Library of Liberal Arts. 1975. Three Essays. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Montaigne, Michel de. 1976. The Complete Essays of Montaigne. Trans. Donald M. Frame. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

Most, Glenn W. 2011. “What Ancient Quarrel between Philosophy and Poetry?” In Plato and the Poets. Eds. Pierre Destree and Fritz-Gregor Herrmann. Leiden: Brill. Pp. 1-20.

Moulton, Carroll. 1977. Similes in the Homeric Poems. Gottingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht.

Mueller, Martin. 1984. The Iliad. London: G. Allen & Unwin.

Murdoch, Iris. 1977. The Fire and the Sun: Why Plato Banished the Artists. Oxford: University of Oxford Press.

Murray, Gilbert. 1924. The Rise of the Greek Epic. 3rd ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Murray, Penelope, ed. 1996. Plato on Poetry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Naddaff, Ramona A. 2002. Exiling the Poets: The Production of Censorship in Plato’s Republic. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Nagy, Gregory. 1979. The Best of the Achaeans: Concepts of the Hero in Archaic Greek Poetry. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Namazi, Rasoul. 2021. “Machiavelli’s Critique of Classical Philosophy and His Case for the Political Life.” Perspectives on Political Science 50:1-11.

Nichols, Mary P. 1987. Socrates and the Political Community: An Ancient Debate. Albany: State University of New York Press.

Nietzsche, Friedrich. 1954. Portable Nietzsche. Trans. Walter Kaufmann. New York: Viking Press.

1968. The Will to Power. Trans. Walter Kaufmann and R. J. Hollingdale. New York: Vintage Books.

1974. The Gay Science. Trans. Walter Kaufmann. New York: Viking Press.

1981. Werke. 3 vols. Ed. Karl Schlechta. Frankfurt: Ullstein Materiellen.

1982. Philologische Schriften (1867-1873). Eds. Giorgi Colli and Mazzino Montinari. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.

1989. Beyond Good and Evil. Trans. Walter Kaufmann. New York: Vintage Books.

2000. Basic Writings of Nietzsche. Trans. Walter Kaufmann. New York: The Modern Library.

2002. Beyond Good and Evil. Trans. Judith Norman. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

2006a. On the Genealogy of Morality. Trans. Carol Diethe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

2006b. “The Greek State.” In On the Genealogy of Morality. Trans. Carol Diethe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 164-173.

2006c. “Homer’s Contest.” In On the Genealogy of Morality. Trans. Carol Diethe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 174-181.

2008. The Gay Science. Trans. Josefine Nauckhoff. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

2009. Digitale Kritische Gesamtausgabe Werke und Briefe. Ed. Paolo d’Iorio. Based on ed. by Giorgio Colli and Mazzino Montinari. Available on Nietzschesource.org

2010a. Human All Too Human. Trans. R. J. Hollingdale. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

2010b. The Anti-Christ, Ecce Homo, Twilight of the Idols, and Other Writings. Trans. Judith Norman. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

2013. Homer and Classical Philology. Trans. J. M. Kennedy. Auckland: The Floating Press.

2019. Daybreak. Trans. R. J. Hollingdale. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

2020. Untimely Meditations. Trans. R. J. Hollingdale. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Nightingale, Andrea Wilson. 1995. Genres in Dialogue: Plato and the Construct of Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Osborne, Catherine. 1998. “Was Verse the Default Form for Presocratic Philosophy?” In Form and Content in Didactic Poetry (Nottingham Classical Literary Studies V). Ed. Catherine Atherton. Bari: Levante Editori. ^PP. ²3^-3 5.

Pangle, Thomas L. 1983. “The Roots of Contemporary Nihilism and Its Political Consequences According to Nietzsche.” Review of Politics 45:45-70.

1986. “The ‘Warrior Spirit’ as an Inlet to the Political Philosophy of Nietzsche’s Zarathustra.” Nietzsche-Studien 15:140-179.

Pangle, Thomas L. and Timothy W. Burns. 2014. The Key Texts of Political Philosophy: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Parsons, William B. 2016. Machiavelli’s Gospel. Rochester: University of Rochester Press.

Pippin, Robert B. 2010. Nietzsche, Psychology, and First Philosophy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Plato. 1991. The Republic of Plato. 2nd ed. Trans. Allan Bloom. New York: Basic Books.

Porter, James I. 2004. “Homer: The History of an Idea.” In The Cambridge Companion to Homer. Ed. Robert Fowler. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 324-343.

Rebhorn, Wayne A. 1988. Foxes and Lions: Machiavelli’s Confidence Men. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

Redfield, James M. 1975. Nature and Culture in the Iliad: The Tragedy of Hector. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Reinhardt, Karl. i960. Tradition und Geist: gesammelte Essays zur Dichtung. Gottingen: Vandonhoeck & Ruprecht.

1997. “Homer and the Telemachy, Circe, Calypso, and the Phaeacians. ” In Homer: German Scholarship in Translation. Trans. G. M. Wright and P. V. Jones. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Pp. 217-248.

Richardson, Scott Douglas. 1990. The Homeric Narrator. Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press.

Ridolfi, Roberto. 1963. The Life of Niccolo Machiavelli. Trans. Cecil Grayson. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Riezler, Kurt. 1943. “Homer’s Contribution to the Meaning of Truth.” Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 3:326-337.

1968. “Das Homerische Gleichniss und der Anfang der Philosophie.” In Um die Begriffswelt der Vorsokratiker. Ed. Hans Gadamer. Darmstadt: Wissenschafliche Buchgesellschaft. Pp. 1-20.

Rosen, Stanley. 1993. The Quarrel between Philosophy and Poetry. New York: Routledge.

Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. 1979a. Emile. Trans. Allan Bloom. New York: Basic Books.

1979b. Political Economy. In On the Social Contract with Geneva Manuscript and Political Economy. Trans. Judith Masters. New York: St. Martin’s Press.

Ruderman, Richard S. 1995. “Love and Friendship in Homer’s Odyssey.” In Political Philosophy and the Human Soul: Essays in Memory of Allan Bloom. Eds. Michael Palmer and Thomas L. Pangle. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Pp. 35-54.

1999. “Odysseus and the Possibility of Enlightenment.” American Journal of Political Science 43:138-161.

Rudiger, Wilhelm. 1897. Marcellus Virgilius Adrianus aus Florenz. Halle an der Saale: Max Niemeyer.

Said, Suzanne. 2011. Homer and the Odyssey. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Saxonhouse, Arlene W. 1988. “Thymos, Justice, and Moderation of Anger in the Story of Achilles.” In Understanding the Political Spirit. Ed. Catherine Zuckert. New Haven, CT and London: Yale University Press. Pp. 30-47.

1992. Fear of Diversity: The Birth of Political Science in Ancient Greek Thought. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

2000. “Comedy, Machiavelli’s Letters, and His Imaginary Republics.” In The Comedy and Tragedy of Machiavelli. Ed. Vickie B. Sullivan. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Pp. 57-77.

2009. “The Socratic Narrative: A Democratic Reading of Plato’s Dialogues.” Political Theory 37:728-753.

Schadewaldt, Wolfgang. 1997. “Achilles’ Decision.” In Homer: German Scholarship in Translation. Trans. G. M. Wright and P. V. Jones. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Pp. 143-169.

Schaper, Eva. 1968. Prelude to Aesthetics. London: George Allen and Unwin.

Schein, Seth L. 1984. The Mortal Hero: An Introduction to Homer’s Iliad. Berkeley: University of California Press.

1996. “Introduction.” In Reading the Odyssey. Ed. Seth L. Schein. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Pp. 3-31.

2016. Homer Epic and Its Reception. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Scodel, Ruth. 2004. “The Story-Teller and His Audience.” In The Cambridge Companion to Homer. Ed. Robert Fowler. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 45-55.

Scott, John. 1963. Homer and His Influence. New York: Cooper Square Publishers.

Scott, William C. 1974. The Oral Nature of the Homeric Simile. Leiden: Brill. 2009. The Artistry of the Homeric Simile. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England.

Segal, Charles. 1992. “Bard and Audience in Homer.” In Homer’s Ancient Readers: The Hermeneutics of Greek Epic’s Earliest Exegetes. Eds. Robert Lamberton and John J. Keaney. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Pp. 3^-29.

1996. “Kleos and Its Ironies in the Odyssey.” In Reading the Odyssey. Ed. Seth L. Schein. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Pp. 201-221.

Silk, Michael. 2004. “The Odyssey and Its Explorations.” In The Cambridge Companion to Homer. Ed. Robert Fowler. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 31-44.

Skinner, Quentin. 1981. Machiavelli. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Slatkin, Laura M. 1996. “Composition by Theme and the Metis of the Odyssey.” In Reading the Odyssey. Ed. Seth L. Schein. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Pp. 223-237.

Spiegelberg, Herbert, ed. 1964. The Socratic Enigma. Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs- Merrill.

Stanley, Keith. 1993. The Shield of Homer: Narrative Structure in the Iliad. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Strauss, Leo. 1952. Persecution and the Art of Writing. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.

1958. Thoughts on Machiavelli. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.

1959. What Is Political Philosophy? And Other Studies. Glencoe, IL: Free Press. 1964. The City and Man. Chicago: Rand McNally.

1968. Liberalism Ancient and Modern. New York: Basic Books.

1983. Studies in Platonic Political Philosophy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

1987. “Introduction.” In The History of Political Philosophy. 3rd ed. Ed. Leo Strauss and Joseph Cropsey. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Pp. 1-6.

2008. Gesammelte Schriften. Vol. 3. 2nd rev. ed. Ed. Heinrich Meier. Stuttgart and Weimar: J. B. Metzler Verlag.

Sullivan, Vickie B. 1996. Machiavelli’s Three Romes: Religion, Human Liberty, and Politics Reformed. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press.

2000. “Introduction.” In The Comedy and Tragedy of Machiavelli. Ed. Vickie B. Sullivan. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Pp. ix-xxi.

2013. “Alexander the Great as ‘Lord of Asia’ and Rome as His Successor in Machiavelli’s Prince.” Review of Politics 75:515-537.

Swift, Jonathan. 1948. Irish Tracts and Sermons. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

. ³962. Miscellaneous and Autobiographical Pieces. Ed. H. Davis. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

Tarcov, Nathan. 2006. “Law and Innovation in Machiavelli’s Prince.” In Enlightening Revolutions: Essays in Honor of Ralph Lerner. Ed. Svetozar Minkov. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. Pp. 77-90.

2013. “Machiavelli in The Prince: His Way of Life in Question.” In Political Philosophy Cross-Examined. Eds. Thomas L. Pangle and Harvey Lomax. NewYork: Palgrave Macmillan. Pp. 101-118.

2014. “Machiavelli’s Critique of Religion.” Social Research 81:193-216.

2015. “Machiavelli’s Humanity.” In In Search of Humanity: Essays in Honor of Clifford Orwin. Ed. Andrea Radasanu. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. Pp. 177-186.

2017. “Machiavelli’s Modern Turn.” In The Modern Turn. Ed. Michael Rohlf. Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press. Pp. 36-53.

Taylor, A. E. 1924. Platonism and Its Influence. Boston: Marshall Jones Co.

Thiele, Leslie Paul. 1990. Friedrich Nietzsche and the Politics of the Soul: A Study of Heroic Individualism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Toffanin, Giuseppe. 1949. “Omero e il Rinascimento Italiano.” Comparative Literature 1:55-62.

Vico, Giambattista. ³977. La scienza nuova. Ed. Paolo Rossi. Milan: Rizzoli Editore.

³999. The New Science. Trans. David Marsh. London: Penguin Books.

Whitman, Cedric H. 1958. Homer and the Homeric Tradition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Wilson, Timothy H. 2005. “Nietzsche’s Early Political Thinking: ‘Homer on Competition.’” Minerva 9:177-235.

Wolf, F. A. 1985. Prologomena to Homer (1795). Trans. Anthony Grafton, Glenn W. Most, and James E. G. Zetzel. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Wright, M. R. 1998. “Philosopher Poets: Parmenides and Empedocles.” In Form and Content in Didactic Poetry (Nottingham Classical Literary Studies V). Ed. Catherine Atherton. Bari: Levante Editori. Pp. ³-22.

Young, Julian. 2010. Friedrich Nietzsche: A Philosophical Biography. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Zanker, Graham. 1994. The Heart of Achilles: Characterization and Personal Ethics in the Iliad. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

Zuckert, Catherine. H. 1988. “On the Role of Spiritedness in Politics.” In Understanding the Political Spirit. Ed. Catherine Zuckert. New Haven, CT and London: Yale University Press. Pp. 1-29.

2009. Plato’s Philosophers: The Coherence of the Dialogues. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

2017. Machiavelli’s Politics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.