F Modern Versus Indigenous Science

For countless generations, Indigenous peoples have studied nature and devel­oped systems of knowledge that are independent of Western science. “If we un­derstand ‘indigenous' to relate to people who have a long-standing and complex relationship with a local area and ‘science' to mean a systematic approach to acquiring knowledge of the natural world, then Indigenous science is the process by which Indigenous people build their empirical knowledge of their natural en­vironment.”⁵⁴ Naturally, as a traditional body of knowledge, Indigenous science does not use the formal thinking tools, recording methods, or instruments that characterize modern science.

Indigenous science seeks “valid and efficacious” knowledge that is reliable and predictive. An example comes from the Polynesian mariners who navigated great distances over open ocean guided by the stars and patterns of the ocean swells. Today the unique experiences of Indigenous peoples are sought after by interna­tional bodies such as the International Panel on Climate Change and others to assess and document the extent and severity of climate change on remote envir- onments⁵⁵ where instrumental records are scarce or absent. For instance, in the Northern Hemisphere, many Indigenous groups have collected information regarding changes in native animal number, habitat change, invasion of exotic plant and animal species, wild fires, etc. Indigenous science produces practical knowledge that is aligned with applied rather than basic science.

Often Indigenous knowledge provides the jumping off point, the raw materials, for modern science. In other cases, Indigenous knowledge may be di­rectly useful to modern society: at least that is the hope for vetiver grass, a hardy, deep-rooted, tall (up to 8 feet) grass from Asia. Vetiver grass has been used for centuries to prevent soil erosion⁵⁶ and is being evaluated for use in shoring up levees in New Orleans (although its advantages are uncertain).

Times are changing, however, as is illustrated by the story of the Chinese phar­maceutical chemist, Tu Youyou.⁵⁷ Seeking to find a cure for malaria, Tu and her co-workers investigated thousands of traditional Chinese herbal treatments before homing in on an extract from Artemisia annua (“sweet wormwood,” qinghao). When her initial preparations were only sporadically effective, she got a hint from an older text (circa 340 c.E.) to do the extractions under cold temperatures, rather than boiling them, as was the modern practice. Her team isolated a compound, artemisinin, that killed the most deadly malaria-causing parasite, Plasmodium falciparum, first in animals, then in people (she insisted on being the first human test subject). Tu Youyou and her team later developed variants of artemisinin that permitted the chemical synthesis of the molecules and, eventually, drugs which are credited with saving millions of lives. In 2011, Tu was recognized with the Lasker-Debakey Clinical Medical Research Award, and, in 2015, she became the first Chinese scientist to win the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.

Does its frequent inclusion of supernatural beliefs and religious or magic rituals preclude Indigenous knowledge from being considered science? If the knowledge is attainable and reliable when accessed by a nonbeliever, then the ritual itself is not an essential component. The psychoactive drug cannabis has been used in cultural rituals throughout the world for thousands of years. Among other things, cannabis preparations are effective pain relievers and ap­petite stimulants.⁵⁸ Modern science now tries to understand and take advantage of its physiological effects. The ritual remains outside of science while the know­ledge remains within Indigenous science.

Alternatively, rituals can affect the body in the way an effective placebo can, via the nervous system. In a controlled clinical study, researchers found that hos­pitalized patients who participated in months of group drumming practice had decreased depression and anxiety.⁵⁹ The drumming experience also affected bi­ochemical measures of immune system function. Knowledge may be significant and reliable despite being couched in supernatural explanatory terms.

A major distinction between modern and Indigenous science is that Indigenous science tends to regard knowledge as sacrosanct and resistant to change, whereas openness to change is a hallmark of modern science. Indigenous science prizes belief and adherence to custom, while doubt and skepticism are the driving forces for modern science. The concepts of hypo­thesis testing and falsification are evidently not accorded prominent roles in Indigenous science, which may represent its most important distinction from modern science.

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