Conclusion
Ritualised close combat played an important cultural and military role in the savannah regions of western Sudan and Angola. In the western Sudan wrestling, stick fighting and fencing competitions allowed men to seek prestige among their peers while at the same time preparing them for warfare, while equestrian close combat dominated even after the introduction of firearms.
On the savannahs of Angola a matrix of ritual violence included machete-wielding dance ceremonies by rulers at coronations and executions, the development of fighting skills through danced martial art contests and the performance of collective mock combats that served as tribute and legitimacy to the ruler in peace times. In times of war the latter served as a preparatory war dance before soldiers took to the field, ready to embody their ruler's power over life and death by exhibiting their martial skills in close combat. Enslaved fighters brought these skills with them to the Americas, where they and their descendants practised such martial arts as a way to develop combat skills, gain honour, enthrone their own king of Kongo leaders, and embody pride and selfmastery even under the yolk of bondage. When opportunities arose, they often used these skills to help secure the success of slave rebellions and linked independence movements such as the Haitian Revolution and the Cuban War of Independence. In doing so they showed that enslaved people - often seen as passive victims of violence - could also be skilled combatants.
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