Conclusion

In the highly competitive and conflictual world of early modern China, aggression and violence were a regular part of village and city life. People not only came to blows with one another, but also with ghosts and demons that infested their world with all sorts of evils and afflictions.

Violence, of course, had multiple meanings. The elites denounced public spectacles of violence as an evil custom among the ‘ignorant masses'. In China the ruling class of scholar-officials, if not in fact then at least by intention, came to increasingly identify themselves as much by their educa­tion and refinement as by their aversion to violence. For the educated elites violence was something they associated chiefly with the unenlightened and boorish lower orders. For the ruling class only ‘rational' violence - such as the punishment and torture of murders, rebels, bandits and other hardened criminals - was acceptable. The actual violence, however, was carried out by menials and never by officials themselves. The ruling class disdained popular forms of violence, in large measure, because they were wild, sense­less and irrational. Unregulated gatherings, such as at rock fights and cock­fights, encouraged vices like prostitution, gambling and drunkenness; and the indiscriminate mingling of the sexes on those occasions appalled their sense of propriety and decency. Members of the ruling class waged an endless war against popular forms of violence that were played out in terms of civilisation versus barbarism.

For the poor and marginalised in society violence was purposeful as evidenced by its rituals and symbolism. It gave power to the powerless and prestige to the disreputable. Honour was regulated by acts of violence. Regular displays of violence were necessary to gain respect and could even ensure social mobility. Violence was essential to masculinity and gave mean­ing to men's lives, providing them with ambition and dignity. Watching violence was not only a popular form of amusement, but also something imbued with magico-religious significance for both performer and audience. Bloody spectacles were auspicious occasions for young and old, male and female. The shedding of blood also gave meaning to violence. Blood was the vital force of life so important in warding off evil spirits, curing illnesses, insuring fertility and bringing good luck. These acts were part of a well- established, but heterodox, folk tradition whereby violence and bloody rituals were deeply rooted in everyday life and the popular culture of early modern south China.