The Inca Empire was the last and most powerful indigenous state to develop in the Americas (Map 25.1).
Starting as a local society in the Cuzco region of what is today southern Peru, the Incas expanded in just over a century of imperial campaigns (ca. 1400-1530s), extending their realm in all directions: northward to the tropical highlands of present-day Ecuador and Colombia, southward to the arid altiplano of Bolivia and the temperate latitudes of Chile and northwest Argentina, westward to the desert oases of the Pacific coast, and eastward to the humid jungles of the Amazonian slope.
The Inca achievement transpired in the absence of many features common to Old World empires—the Incas lacked wheeled vehicles, coinage, and writing, and could not use their domesticated animals for heavy transport or agricultural labor. The Incas incorporated diverse subject populations and built social power in varied ways that adapted dynamic principles of statecraft to local environmental and social realities.
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