ACTION SCIENCE

Chris Argyris and Donald Schon (1974, 1978) developed Action Science to explore the gap between what people say they want to do and what they are actually able to produce. They hypothesize that people are guided by a theory of action, which is cognitive in nature.

Theories of action predict that people will act in certain ways under certain conditions, when guided by certain values, in order to achieve desired conse­quences. Argyris and Schon explain that, when things go wrong, people first change their tactics. They call this single-loop learning. For example, if a peer rejects another employee’s opinion, the employee might decide that he did not phrase his argument in an effective manner. He might try to state the same viewpoint in a different way, or he might gather more information to build a stronger case. If the reasons for resistance do not lie in the format of the argu­ment, these tactical changes will not remedy the mismatch. Instead, the employee must reconsider the way in which he has framed the problem. Argyris and Schon (1974, 1978) call this deeper level of analysis by the name of double­loop learning about assumptions, values, beliefs, or norms that influence action. In the preceding example, double-loop learning might take place if the employee recognized that his definition of “effective” or of participative decision making was fundamentally different from that of his colleague. Single-loop learning is not, in and of itself, “bad.” Learning to change tactics often yields valuable gains, but such learning may not go far enough.

People often believe that they act according to one set of beliefs (espoused theory); but because of tacitly held assumptions, values, and norms, they actu­ally act in ways that often contradict their espoused theories (theory-in-use). The employee in the preceding example might believe in participatory decision making (his espoused theory), but in this case, he wants to exclude some stake­holder groups that hold highly divergent views (theory-in-use).

Argyris and Schon identified a core set of values that control many of the interactions that they studied. These values underlie what they describe as a behavioral-social world, or a culture, that they call “Model I.” Model I values lead to actions that often engender conflict. These values include the need to exert unilateral control over the interaction, a drive to win at all costs, and a tendency to act as if one is rational even when emotions run high.

Argyris and Schon describe an alternative learning culture that they call Model II. Its values include a commitment to valid information even when this contradicts opinions held by oneself or powerful others; ensuring that agree­ments are based on free and informed choice; and finding solutions based on internal commitment rather than external persuasion or coercion. Model II cul­tures cannot be developed without engaging in some double-loop learning. Deci­sions often take longer because more information is considered and people are encouraged to advocate for their viewpoint while also remaining open to con­tradictory information. In Model II, people probe for the reasoning that leads others to the conclusions and judgments they reach. Employees are encouraged to raise divergent views even if, by doing so, they generate controversy. Lead­ers in a Model II culture manage the resulting conflict because they see that this will help them to avoid mistakes and generate innovative thinking.

Model I values lead people to control outcomes toward their own respective goals.

A Model I culture may not be supportive of double-loop learning practices, such as willingness to change an opinion if it turns out to be based on faulty reasoning or interest in generating evidence to support alternative viewpoints that might be superior to one’s own thinking. Individuals can practice double­loop learning in a Model I culture, but when they do so, they are clearly going against norms that they might, or might not, be able to change. Hence, double­loop learners carefully choose when and how to use these skills.