CONCLUSION

The adoption of the terms “photo ID,” “HAZMAT,” and “lockdown” in every­day speech after 9/11 (Rosenthal, 2003) demonstrates how violence not only has immediate effects, but also how it continues to ripple out and affect indi­viduals, institutions, cities, and nations.

Although aggression and violence affect all social classes, people with the lowest socioeconomic status are at highest risk. Preventative and protective services must be available to them if violence is to be prevented. The World Health Organization (2002) emphasizes that:

Upstream investment brings downstream results. There is a tendency worldwide for authorities to act only after violence has occurred. But investing in prevention— especially primary prevention activities that operate “upstream” of problems—may be more cost-effective and have large and long-lasting benefits (p. 35).

Peaceful cultures not only reduce aggression and violence, but also sustain peaceful social relations by emphasizing distributive, procedural, and inclusionary justice (Opotow, 2002). They also address conflict forthrightly and constructively to foster tolerance of diverse perspectives, the free flow of information, and democratic participation (Opotow, Gerson, and Woodside, 2005). Consistent with this activist conception of peace, this chapter has encour­aged awareness of the breadth and complexity of aggression and violence and the range of factors that can cause and moderate their expression. The challenge is to utilize this knowledge to foster a culture of social justice, moral inclusion, and peace in the lives of individuals, communities, nations, and the world.

Note

1. In this chapter I use either term, violence or aggression, depending on which is most appropriate to the context.