Glossary

ad hoc: the slightest modification of views under the pressure of criticism, meant to save them from criticism; changes made minimally and reluctantly analysis: literally, dissection, taking apart; the opposite of synthesis; philosoph­ical analysis is the spelling out of ideas in detail

autonomy (moral and/or intellectual): literally, self-rule; independence collectivism: the theory that societies shape individuals and their aims; the theory that social ends precede individual aims; see sociologism conservatism: the most widespread theory; it states that to fare well, society should follow and guard its own traditions

convention: social agreement, socially endorsed opinions and rules, arbitrari­ness

conventionalism: the demand that laws should be obeyed although they are conventional (i.e., enacted by some arbitrary agreement); the theory that science is binding only as a convention

criterion: a rule (or goal) for judging

critical attitude: the readiness and the wish to engage in criticism; see criticism critical rationalism: the view that rational conduct involves trial and error, con­jectures, and criticism

criticism: attempting refutation, to locate any error, fault-finding, even prob­lem definition

deductivism: the view of science as based on axioms; intellectualism empiricism: the theory that knowledge is wholly based on observations; the theory that only observations, if anything, justify theories

enlightenment: understanding; the theory that science will save humanity; the Enlightenment: an intellectual movement ruling the intellectuals in the sev­enteenth and eighteenth centuries

essence: the quality that makes a thing what it is; the opposite of accident, which is inessential

essential definition: the description of an essence; see essence

ethics: the rules of proper conduct; the theory of such rules; theirjustification existentialism: the philosophy that says life is purposeless and that realizing this is the only salvation of the individual - it thus seemingly says nothing about society; in truth, as developed by Jean-Paul Sartre, it is a reactionary social philosophy thinly disguised as progressive and scarcely hides its contempt for common people

humanism: faith in humanity; the theory that all humans possess dignity to protect and enhance

individualism: the theory that only individuals (and not collectives or societies or institutions) are real; that only individuals have purposes; see psycholo­gism

induction: the process by which scientific theories (allegedly) evolved from available scientific information rather than theory; the process by which sci­entific theories (allegedly) gain scientific justification from available infor­mation rather than theory

inductivism: the view of empirical science as resting inductively on information intellectual frameworks: see metaphysics intellectualism, apriorism: the theory that scientific knowledge rests on axioms

the truth of which is attained by intuition; justification by intuition logical positivism: the justification of positivism by the (absurd) claim that meta­

physical utterances are inherently meaningless; the conceit that this claim follows from an existing, satisfactory theory of meaning; the conceit that this claim comprises a non-controversial demarcation between the utterances of science and metaphysics

Marxism: the theory (originated by Marx) that (the essence of) history is the history of class struggle; a school of thought that assumes a monopoly over radicalism and progressivism in order to cover up for its anti-democratic tendencies and contempt for common people

metaphysics: the first principles of physics; the metaphysics of any science is the foundations or the intellectual framework of that science

method: literally, way; scientific, metaphysical, or any other method is the (allegedly) proper way to do science, philosophy, or anything else methodology: the theory of (proper) method; see method nationalism: the theory that the proper citizenry of the state compose a

(coherent) nation and the state is its instrument nature: reality; the real; the opposite of appearances paradigm: literally, chief example; a fancy and confusing name for intellectual framework; a fancy and confusing name for some given individual scientific theory that is a chief example of some given intellectual framework phenomena: literally, appearances; experience pluralism: the preference for a diversity over unanimity - of opinions, of

denominations, of political ideologies, of scientific theories positivism: literally, straightforwardly terse and to the point; the theory that

philosophy has nothing to say or delve into; see logical positivism proof: decisive justification; the act of making everyone see the truth of a

proposition; showing that a proposition is unquestionably true psychologism: a form of reductionism, the theory that, because only individuals

really exist, all social science is actually psychology; the theory that backs individualism and was once progressive

Pyrrhonism: see skepticism, IraditionalorPyrrhonist

radicalism: the demand to reject all tradition and all arbitrariness; the theory that unless one starts afresh utterly and thoroughly, all of one’s effort is in vain

face="Times New Roman">rational belief: (supposedly) scientific belief; (supposedly) belief based on proof or evidence; obligatory belief; incontestable belief

rational disagreement: disagreement in which it is not obvious which of the dif­ferent sides is mistaken, in which the different sides have sound arguments for their own views and/or against opposite views

rationalism: the theory that one should use one’s own brain to select one’s lifestyle; classical rationalism is radical, modern rationalism need not be radical

rationality: the disposition to think and act rationally (i.e., critically); i.e., while arguing, presumably thereby justifying one’s views and actions

reaction: literally, opposite action; backlash; the traditionalist (backlash) response to the radicals

realism: the theory that reality exists, that our experience emanates from objects, that there is something other than (behind) the appearances

reality: that which is behind the appearances, the solid behind the transient, the substance; see substance

reductionism: the idea that one science is really another - for example, the idea that psychology is really physics because we are computers of sorts; in the social sciences, there are two traditional versions of reductionism: the psychologism of the Enlightenment and the sociologism of the reaction; see psychologism, sociologism

reformism: the theory that the best practical approach (to society, politics, legislation, science - perhaps to all other matters) is (not to endorse and not to reject but) to try to improve it

relativism: the opposite of absolutism, the idea that the truth differs in dif­ferent times and places or what the true ethic is; the denial of absolutism; although absolutists need not reject the relative, relativists are those who reject the absolute

religion (revealed and rational): doctrine plus ritual plus tradition plus the community of the faithful and its organizations

romanticism: the hankering for the past

skepticism: the view that proof is impossible

skepticism, traditional or Pyrrhonist: the demand to suspend judgment on every issue because proof is impossible, plus the view that the suspension of judgment brings peace of mind (ataraxia)

socialism: the idea thatjustice is impossible to reach unless (private) property is abolished; the proposal to abolish (private) property

sociologism: the theory that only societies (but not individuals) really exist and all social science is actually sociology; see reductionism

Socratic doubt: the readiness to examine every view, however obvious and/or well-established it may be

substance:lang=EN-US style='font-size:8.5pt;line-height:112%'> the real; the utterly independent of everything else; the simplest and the unanalyzable; see reality

traditionalism: the theory that the best way to run a society is to stick to tradition

as much as possible in efforts to preserve them as best possible ultimate values: the (presumed) axioms of an ethical system utilitarianism: the idea that the highest good is the greatest happiness for the greatest number

Utopianism: the search for an ideal state values: central norms or criteria by which to determine norms; whatever makes life worth living