First aid for heart failure

The causes of cardiac arrest (circulation) are: heart disease - myocardial infarction; primary respiratory distress; external factors - mechanical or electrical injuries, poisoning; acute progressive disorder of the internal environment of body (electrolyte, metabolic, etc.).

Symptoms: skin is pale gray with cyanotic colour, no consciousness, pupils are dilated and do not react to light, the pulse on carotid and femoral arteries is not probed or only rare weak waves are noted, no breath or there are separate rare flanks.

The first aid is aimed at providing organs and tissues with oxygenated blood, and restoring sustained blood circulation.

Resuscitation (reanimation) - a series of activities aimed at restoring the life of patient whose breathing and circulation suddenly stopped. It includes artificial respiration, providing cerebral circulation sufficient to prevent irreversible changes in the brain cells.

First aid for animal bites

Animal bites pose a serious threat to health of children and adults. The health impacts of animal bites are dependent on the type and health of the animal species, the size and health of the bitten person, and accessibility to appropriate health care.

Numerous animal species have the potential to bite humans; however the most important are those arising from snakes, dogs and cats.

Snake bites

Worldwide, up to five million people are bitten by snakes every year. Of these, poisonous (envenoming) snakes cause considerable morbidity and mortality. There are an estimated 2.4 million envenomations (poisonings from snake bites) and 94 000-125 000 deaths annually, with an additional 400 000 amputations and other severe health consequences, such as infection, tetanus, scarring, contractures, and psychological sequelae.

Approximately 600 species of snake are venomous and approximately 50-70% of bites by these cause envenomation. At the time of a bite, the cornerstone of care is complete immobilization of the affected body part and prompt transfer to a medical facility.

Tourniquets and cutting wounds can worsen the effects of the venom and should not be used as first aid.

Frequently, victims of snake bites will require treatment with antivenom. It is important that the antivenom is appropriate for snakes endemic to the region. Additional measures include wound cleansing to decrease infection risk, supportive therapy such as airway support, and administration of tetanus vaccine upon discharge if the person has been inadequately vaccinated against tetanus.

Prevention of snake bites involves informing communities about snake bite risks and prevention techniques, such as to:

• avoid tall grassy areas;

• wear protective shoes/boots;

• keep storage areas clear of rodents;

• remove rubbish, woodpiles and low brush from around the home;

• store food in rodent-proof containers, raise beds above floor level and tuck mosquito nets securely under sleeping mats within the home.

Dog bites

There are no global estimates of dog bite incidence, however studies suggest that dog bites account for tens of millions of injuries annually.

Who is most at risk?

Children make up the largest percentage of people bitten by dogs, with the highest incidence in mid-to-late childhood. The risk of injury to the head and neck is greater in children than in adults, adding to increased severity, necessity for medical treatment and death rates.

Treatment depends on the location of the bite, the overall health condition of the bitten person and whether or not the dog is vaccinated against rabies. The main principles of care include:

• early medical management;

• irrigation and cleansing of the wound;

• primary closure if the wound is low-risk for developing infection;

• prophylactic antibiotics for high-risk wounds or people with immune deficiency;

• rabies post-exposure treatment depending on the dog vaccination status;

• administration of tetanus vaccine if the person has not been adequately vaccinated.

Cat bites

Worldwide, cat bites account for 2-50% of injuries related to animal­bites. They are commonly second to dog bites in terms of incidence.

Who is most at risk?

Female adults have the highest rate of cat bites.

Treatment depends on the location of the bite and the rabies vaccination status of animal species inflicting the bite. The main principles of care include:

• early medical management including wound cleansing;

• prophylactic antibiotics to decrease infection risk;

• rabies post-exposure treatment depending on the animal vaccination status;

• administration of tetanus vaccine if the person has not been adequately vaccinated.

Answer these questions:

1. What is a trauma?

2. Give an example of chemical trauma.

3. Give an example of physical trauma.

4. First aid for internal bleeding

5. What is resuscitation?