Christianity, Gender, and Inclusion
The historical development of Christianity has occurred in patriarchal cultures. Although Christian women have distinguished themselves as saints, mystics, theologians, members of religious orders, and founders of schools, hospitals, and other organizations, they have generally been excluded from positions of leadership and authority in the Church.
But women’s roles began to change in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. This is especially true of the Protestant tradition, in which women are now ordained to the clergy and have even founded denominations. Although the Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches remain opposed to ordaining them, women from these traditions have found other settings in which to lead and serve. Perhaps the most notable of these is the academic world. As scholars specializing in biblical studies, ethics, and theology, women are communicating new ideas and insights that are bringing profound change to Christian thought. For example, feminist theologians have called for liberation from a Christian worldview based solely on the experience of men. In her Beyond God the Father (1973), Mary Daly argued that the Christian habit of thinking of God as Father allows misogyny to appear as a spiritual norm, thereby relegating women to a secondary status in the Church. In her Sexism and God-Talk: Toward a Feminist Theology (1983), Rosemary Radford Ruether, another influential feminist theologian, urges a new way of thinking about God as “God/ess” and has suggested the creation of churches open only to women and men committed to the rights and equality of women.Historically, LGBTQ Christians have been denied affirmation in the Church on the basis of the popular belief that the Bible condemns homosexuality. This view has been challenged in recent years by some who argue that the Bible, when read in the original languages and with an awareness of cultural norms in the biblical period, affirms same-sex partnerships.
Whatever we might make of the debate on this issue, it is clear that in recent years Christianity has begun to be more welcoming to people who identify as queer. Although some churches remain committed to traditional and exclusive views, others are enthusiastically inclusive and LGBTQ-affirming. People who identify as LGBTQ have also founded churches of their own, such as the Metropolitan Community Churches (MCC), in order to create congregations in which their needs and concerns are sure to be addressed.In 2015 the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that the Constitution guarantees a right to same-sex marriage. The Court’s decision came as significant changes in public opinion were becoming evident. According to studies— conducted by the Pew Research Center, in 2004 just 31 percent of all adults in the United States favored same-sex marriage. By 2015 that number had climbed to 61 percent. Similar changes in public opinion have occurred elsewhere in the world. These have not moved the Roman Catholic, Orthodox, and conservative Protestant churches from their traditional teaching that marriage is an institution only for heterosexual couples, but many Protestant and Anglican churches now sanction same-sex marriage. Many of these also ordain those who identify as gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender to the clergy. They include the Metropolitan Community Churches, the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, the Presbyterian Church (USA), the United Church of Christ, the Episcopal Church in the United States, the Evangelical Church in Germany, the Swiss Reformed Church, the United Protestant Church of France, the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada, and many others.
Self-Assessment 12.3
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Christianity in the Twenty-First Century
With more than 2.2 billion adherents, Christianity is the world’s largest religion. Half of the world’s Christians are Roman Catholics, 37 percent identify as Protestants, and 12 percent are Orthodox.
The remaining 1 percent belong to other Christian groups. As of 2010, about 26 percent of Christians lived in Europe, 25 percent in Latin America and the Caribbean, 24 percent in sub-Saharan Africa, 13 percent in Asia and the Pacific, and 12 percent in North America. The global population of Christians is expected to grow to 2.9 billion by 2050, but the share of the world’s population that is Christian will remain stable at 31 percent.Christianity has a history of changing geography. Although it began in the Middle East, the Islamic conquest of the region in the early Middle Ages greatly diminished its presence there; today, only 4 percent of the population of the Middle East is Christian. During the Middle Ages most Christians lived in Europe, but the European exploration and colonization of the Americas, Africa, and Asia that began in the fifteenth century brought Christianity to these regions, thereby initiating another demographic shift. Christianity’s steady growth in these parts of the world, far removed from its place of origin, has made it a truly global religion.
The most dramatic developments in the globalization of Christianity have occurred in recent years. Just a century ago, 80 percent of Christians lived in Europe and North America. Today, 60 percent live in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Christianity is moving southward and, to a lesser extent, eastward. This trend will continue. According to some projections, by 2050 only 20 percent of the world’s Christians will be non-Hispanic Caucasians. The vast majority will live in the Southern Hemisphere. This global shift is likely to bring significant change as African, Latin American, and Asian Christians assume greater influence in the Church.-
1 The demographic data found in this box are taken from the Pew-Templeton “Global Religious Futures Project” ( www.globalreligiousfutures.org) and “The Changing Global Religious Landscape,” a study by the Pew Research Center ( www.pewforum.org).
With a history reaching back 2,000 years, Christianity has proven to be a durable religion.
Like other religions that have met the test of time, much of its vitality lies in the meaning its message has had for countless adherents through the centuries. History, geography, culture, and other forces have produced many forms of Christianity, but they share basic beliefs that go back to Jesus and to the New Testament texts that expound the meaning of his teachings, life, death, and resurrection: there is a single, transcendent, all-powerful, and personal God who created the universe as an expression of divine love and who seeks loving union with humanity.In addressing the most basic questions arising from human existence, the Christian message has had an incalculable influence on individual lives. But it has also contributed to the formation of entire civilizations, shaping their political and social institutions, informing their cultural values and ideals, and inspiring some of their greatest achievements in art, architecture, and literature.
There are two great issues we must consider, however briefly, in concluding our discussion of Christianity. The first is the role Christianity will play in shaping the world of the future. How will Christians respond to the environmental, social, and political problems our world faces? What actions will they take in promoting justice for those who have been treated unjustly, both inside and outside the Church? The second issue is how Christianity will be affected by the rapid change we see all around us. Will its traditional forms and institutions remain solidly entrenched? As the world’s Christian population becomes increasingly concentrated in Africa, South America, and Asia, how will the religious and cultural traditions of these regions influence a religion with a history that has been played out largely in Europe and North America? Of course, we cannot be certain of the answers to questions like these. We can be certain only that Christianity, the world’s largest religion, will remain a major force in the world in which we live.
SEEKING ANSWERS
What Is Ultimate Reality?
Christianity teaches that there is a single, personal, transcendent, and all-powerful God —a God who is one in essence but threefold in his manifestations as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.
God created a perfect world as an expression of divine love, but it has fallen into imperfection due to human sin. Like Jews and Muslims, Christians believe that God wants to be known in and by Creation, and especially by humanity. For Christians, the supreme revelation of the divine nature is found in Jesus Christ, who was the very incarnation of God. They also believe that God has revealed himself in other ways, such as through scripture and through the immensity and beauty of the universe.How Should We Live in This World?
Christians believe that God has reached out in grace (love) to humanity, making atonement for sin through Jesus Christ. For those who respond to God’s love in faith, a new kind of life in Christ becomes possible—a life in which the fundamental ethical principle is love. Jesus spoke of love for God and one’s neighbor as the essence of scripture and described it in a radical way. Even enemies must be loved and forgiven. This demanding conception of love is one of the essential ideals in Christianity. It is also one that requires great effort. To achieve it, Christians find inspiration in study and reflection on scripture, through prayer, and in fellowship with other Christians who take love seriously. Christians find good examples of love and other virtues in the lives of the saints, whom they seek to emulate. They also believe that the sacraments offer a spiritual nourishment that is helpful in the cultivation of lives they attempt to live in imitation of Christ.
What Is Our Ultimate Purpose?
For Christians, the ultimate goal of human existence is union with God. As Augustine wrote in the fifth century, “You have made us for yourself, O Lord, and our hearts are restless until they find rest in you.” The path to reunion with God is through Jesus Christ, whose sacrificial death, an expression of God’s love, atoned for all human sin. When human beings respond in faith to God’s love, or grace, they are brought into union with the divine.
Christians hope to share in the resurrection of Christ, which leads to eternal blessedness in union with God. But there is also the possibility of eternal separation from God. Because the Bible offers few concrete details about these two possibilities, traditionally understood as heaven and hell, they have been interpreted in many different ways.REVIEW QUESTIONS
For Review
1. What were the means by which the Christian movement defined orthodox belief and established ecclesiastical authority in late antiquity?
2. How did the Roman Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant traditions within Christianity emerge from the “catholic” or “universal” Christianity of the first millennium? What were the main factors that contributed to the formation of these traditions?
3. What are the seasons and holy days of the liturgical year? What is their significance for Christians? How are they observed?
4. What is the doctrine of the Trinity? Why is this doctrine central to Christianity?
5. What are the major challenges Christianity has encountered in the modern era? How has it responded to them?
For Further Reflection
1. What are some of the more important ways in which basic Christian beliefs are expressed outwardly in worship, the sacraments, prayer, and other devotional practices?
2. If asked by a friend, how would you describe the essence of Christianity? Are there teachings embraced by all (or, at least, most) forms of Christianity?
3. How do Christian beliefs about God/ultimate reality, human nature, the world, and the ultimate goal or purpose of human existence compare with those of the closely related religions of Judaism and Islam?
4. How do Christian beliefs about these same issues compare with those of religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Daoism, Confucianism, Sikhism, and Jainism?
5. Do you think the Christian ecumenical movement has a realistic chance of restoring the original unity of the Christian religion?
Chapter 12 Self-Quiz
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Chapter 12 Flashcards
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SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING
Bowden, John. Encyclopedia of Christianity. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. A one-volume collection of short, scholarly articles on hundreds of topics.
Dowell, Graham. The Heart Has Seasons: Travelling through the Christian Year. Worthing, UK: Churchman, 1989. A superb introduction to the significance and celebration of the “seasons” of the liturgical year.
Dowley, Tim, and David Wright. Introduction to the History of Christianity. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1995. Includes hundreds of photos, maps, charts, and articles on topics of special interest.
Ehrman, Bart. The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. An excellent introduction to the New Testament texts and selected Christian texts from the second century.
Marsden, George. Understanding Fundamentalism and Evangelicalism. Grand Rapids, Ml: William B. Eerdmans, 1991. Describes the essential features of these two movements and their involvement in politics and science.
McGrath, Alister. Theology: The Basics. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004. Individual chapters focus on specific issues such as God, Jesus, faith, salvation, and heaven. Emphasis on Roman Catholic and Protestant thought.
Ware, Timothy (Kallistos). The Orthodox Church. New York: Penguin, 1993. A classic presentation of the history, thought, and practices of the Orthodox tradition by one of its greatest spokespersons.
White, James. Introduction to Christian Worship. 3rd ed. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 2001. An ideal book for beginners interested in the history and forms of Christian worship.
Click here for more suggested readings, weblinks, and other media for this chapter.
ONLINE RESOURCES
Virtual Religion Index
virtualreligion.net
An excellent gateway to religion-related sites of all kinds, including collections of texts, religion-specific sites, and academic program sites.
Catholic Online
catholic.org
This online resource provides access to information “on all things Catholic,” including saints, holy days, Roman Catholic theology, and announcements from the Vatican.
Orthodox Wiki
orthodoxwiki.org
This online resource includes nearly 4,000 articles on all aspects of Orthodox Christianity. It is a great place to begin an exploration of Orthodoxy.
Theopedia
theopedia.com
An online “encyclopedia of biblical Christianity” with articles on hundreds of topics written from an evangelical Protestant perspective.
Click here for web links to sacred texts.
LIST OF KEY TERMS
apostles apostolic succession baptism
bishops
Christmas church
Easter
Epiphany
Eucharist evangelicalism Fundamentalism gospels grace
Icons
Inquisition
John Calvin kingdom of God liturgy logos
Lord’s Prayer
Martin Luther messiah
Nicene Creed original sin
Orthodox Church parables
Paul of Tarsus
Pentecost
Pentecostalism
Protestant Christianity purgatory
Roman Catholic Church
rosary
sacraments
saints
scholasticism
sin
transubstantiation
Trinity