Almost seven years of war and civil strife had left the Bolshevik-controlled parts of the former Russian Empire in shambles.

In Ukraine alone the fighting, executions, and epidemics associated with the upheaval, especially the Civil War, took about 1.5 million lives. Lack of food, heating materials, and employment forced hundreds of thousands to abandon the cities for the villages.

Despite their victory, the Bolsheviks – a tiny minority in the midst of a huge and largely antagonistic populace – were in no position to proceed as they wished. Lenin’s death in 1924 precipitated a leadership crisis that was exacerbated by a fierce debate in the Communist party about which direction it should take in attempting to create a communist society. Under the circumstances, the party was cautious and pliant in pursuing its goals throughout the 1920s. As long as individuals and groups did not openly challenge the Soviet political system, government interference in their affairs was limited.

Ukrainians profited from Soviet flexibility during this period in two ways: from concessions the government made to the peasantry in general and from Soviet attempts to gain broader support among non-Russians. As a result, during the 1920s, Ukrainian self-confidence and aspirations experienced a surprising resurgence and this period has come to be viewed by many as the golden age for Ukrainians under Soviet rule.