Conclusion

The Islamic political model began as a religious community that became a conquest empire, but the law and society that the empire had created proved far stronger than the empire itself and survived the political fragmentation of the middle period that lasted from the fourth/ tenth to the ninth/15th centuries.

Notes

1 Aram Shahin, ‘Arabian Political Thought in the Great Century of Change’ (PhD dissertation, University of Chicago, 2009).

2 Michael Lecker, The ‘Constitution of Medina’: Muhammad’s First Legal Document (Princeton, NJ: The Darwin Press, 2004), 3-4.

3 Frederick Denny, ‘Umma in the Constitution of Medina’, Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 36(1) (1977): 44.

4 Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari, Jami" al-Bayan fi Tawil al-Quran, 24 vols (Cairo: Mu’assasat al- Risala, 2000), 8: 495ff

5 Quentin Skinner, Foundations of Modern Political Thought, vol. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), ix-x.

6 Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European States, AD 990-1990 (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1990), 1-2.

7 Ovamir Anjum, Politics, Law and Community in Islamic Thought: The Taymiyyan Moment (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 50-60.

8 Ridwan al-Sayyid, Introduction to al-Mawardi’s Tas-hil al-Nazar wa-Tajil al-Zafar (Beirut: Dar al- 'Ulum al-'Arabiyya, 1987), 7, quoting Abu Hilal’s al-Furuq al-Lughawiyya.

9 Ovamir Anjum, Politics, Law and Community in Islamic Thought, 262.

10 Stuart Elden, The Birth of Territory (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013).

11 Muhammad Khalid Masud, Rudolph Peters and David Powers (eds), Dispensing Justice in Islam: Qadis and their Judgments (Leiden: Brill, 2012).

12 Our oldest source on 'Umar II is a work by a student of Malik, 'Abdullah b. 'Abd al-Hakam (d. 214/829), Sirat "Umar b. Abd al-Aziz, ed. Ahmad 'Ubayd (Beirut: 'Alam al-Kutub, 1984).

13 Ovamir Anjum, Politics, Law and Community in Islamic Thought; Patricia Crone, God’s Rule: Six Centuries of Medieval Islamic Political Thought (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004).

14 S. M. Hosayn Tabataba’i, Islamic Teachings: An Overview, trans. R. Campbell, 2nd edn (New York: Alavi Foundation, 2000); Ovamir Anjum, Politics, Law and Community in Islamic Thought.

15 Louise Marlow, ‘Advice and Advice Literature’, Encyclopaedia of Islam, ed. G. Krämer, D. Matringe, J. Nawas and E. Rowson, 3rd edn (Leiden: Brill, 2010).

16 Ovamir Anjum, Politics, Law and Community in Islamic Thought.

17 Sherman A. Jackson, The Constitutional Jurisprudence of Shihab al-Dan al-Qarafa (Leiden: Brill, 1996).

18 ‘Abd al-Rahman Ibn Khaldun Muqaddima (Damascus: Dar Ya’rub, 2004).

Selected bibliography and further reading

Anjum, Ovamir. Politics, Law and Community in Islamic Thought: The Taymiyyan Moment (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012).

Cahen, C. ‘Bayt al-Mal’. In Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd edn (Brill Online, 2013), ed. P. Bearman, T. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W. P. Heinrichs. Consulted online on 15 December 2018: http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0109

Crone, Patricia. God’s Rule: Six Centuries of Medieval Islamic Political Thought (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004).

Denny, Frederick. ‘Umma in the Constitution of Medina’. Journal of Near Eastern Studies 36(1) (1977): 39-47.

Donner, Fred. Early Islamic Conquests (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981).

Duri, 'Abd al-'Aziz al-. ‘Diwan’. In Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd edn (Brill Online, 2013). Elden, Stuart. The Birth of Territory (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013).

'Imara, Muhammad. Al-Islam wa-Falsafat al-Hukm, 3rd edn (Cairo: Dar al-Shuruq, 2009).

Inalcik, Halil and P. Hardy. ‘Djizya’. In Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd edn (Brill Online, 2013).

Jackson, Sherman A. The Constitutional Jurisprudence of Shihab al-Dan al-Qarafa (Leiden: Brill, 1996).

Johns, Jeremy. Arabic Administration in Norman Sicily: The Royal Dawan (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni­versity Press, 2002).

Kunt, Metin. ‘Ottomans and Safavids: States, Statecraft, and Societies’. In A Companion to the History of the Middle East, ed. Youssef Choueiri (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005), 192-206.

Lambton, A. K. S. State and Government in Medieval Islam: An Introduction to the Study of Islamic Political Theory: The Jurists (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981).

Lapidus, Ira M. A History of Islamic Societies, 2nd edn (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002). Lewis, Bernard. ‘Hukuma’. In Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd edn (Brill Online, 2012).

Marlow, Louise. ‘Advice and Advice Literature’. In Encyclopaedia of Islam, ed. G. Krämer, D. Matringe, J. Nawas and E. Rowson, 3rd edn (Leiden: Brill, 2010).

Masud, Muhammad Khalid, Rudolph Peters and David Powers (eds). Dispensing Justice in Islam: Qadis and their Judgments (Leiden: Brill, 2012).

Sayyid, Ridwan al-. Al-Jamaa wa-l-Mujtama wa-l-Dawla (Beirut: Dar al-Kitab al-'Arabi, 1997).

Shahin, Aram. ‘Arabian Political Thought in the Great Century of Change’ (PhD dissertation, Uni­versity of Chicago, 2009).

Skinner, Quentin. Foundations of Modern Political Thought, vol. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978).

Tabari, Ibn Jarir al-. Jami" al-Bayanfi Tawil al-Qur'an, 24 vols (Beirut: Mu’assasat al-Risala, 2000).

Tabataba’i, S. M. Hosayn. Islamic Teachings: An Overview, trans. R. Campbell, 2nd edn (New York: Alavi Foundation, 2000).

Tilly, Charles. Coercion, Capital, and European States, AD 990—1990 (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1992). Tyan, Emile. Institutions du droit public musulman, 2 vols (Paris: Recueil Sirey, 1954—7).

'Umari, Akram Diya’ al-. Madinan Society at the Time of the Prophet, trans. Huda Khattab, 2 vols (Herndon, VA: International Institution of Islamic Thought, 1991).