Paratuberculosis in Camelids and Other Ruminants

Apart from its presence in cattle, sheep, goats and deer, paratuberculosis has also been di­agnosed in a wide range of other free-ranging and domesticated ruminants. These include moose (Alces alces) (Soltys et al., 1967), bison (Bison bison) (Buergelt et al., 2000), riverine buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) (Yadav et al., 2008), bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) (Williams et al., 1983), mouflon (Ovis orientalisorientalis) (Pavlik et al., 2000) and various antelope species.

14.2.1 Bison

Approximately 200,000 bison inhabit the USA, with most on ranches or in zoos, or in federal- and state-controlled areas. Paratuberculosis was first described in bison in a breeding herd of 2800 animals. Clinically affected bison showed severe weight loss, failure to shed winter hair and poor body condition (Buergelt et al., 2000). Necropsy revealed mucosal corrugation in the distal small intestine and enlarged mesenteric lymph nodes. Particular strains of MAP, which express a distinct IS 1311 genotype, have been isolated from North American bison (Bison bi­son) (Whittington et al., 2001) and Indian bison (Sohal et al., 2013; see Chapter 6, this volume). These bison strains are a subset of MAP-C, are not exclusive to bison and have been reported to have the capacity to act as an important zo­onotic pathogen for humans in India (Chaubey et al., 2017).

14.2.2 Riverine buffalo

The world population of riverine buffalo is over 160 million and they are spread over 129 countries, with most being in India, which has nearly 100 million. Paratuberculosis has been reported in riverine buffalo in India, where the prevalence of infection was over 40% in some populations (Yadav et al., 2008). Gross lesions typical of paratuberculosis occur naturally in around 5% of domesticated water buffalo in India (Sivakumar et al., 2006), although it has been reported that water buffalo are compara­tively resistant to paratuberculosis (Mukherjee and Lahiri, 1966).

(0-3%) infection was reported in Italy (Lillini etal., 1999) and Pakistan (Rehman etal., 2018), where lighter, non-pregnant females had a high­er prevalence of disease.

14.2.3 Camelids

Paratuberculosis has been reported widely in many populations of camels in Asia, the Middle East, Africa and the Russia (Ivanov and Skalinskii, 1957; Poddubskii et al., 1962; Burgemeister et al., 1975; Feldman et al., 1981; Ovdienko et al., 1985; Gameel et al., 1994; Wernery and Kinne, 2007). There has also been one report from a zoo in North America (Amand, 19 74). The disease in camels may have a more rapid course than in cattle, with death occurring after 4-6 weeks' illness (Wernery et al., 2007). In Bactrian camels (Camelus bactrianus), the dis­ease was most severe in 3-5-year-old animals (Ovdienko et al., 1985). Paratuberculosis causes scouring and wasting disease in Arabian drom­edary camels (Camelus dromedarius) and is found widely throughout camel herds in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Salem et al., 2019). Lesions have been documented in the ileum, colon, rec­tum, mesenteric lymph nodes, liver, mediasti­nal lymph nodes and spleen. The camel may be unique in its high incidence of liver involvement (Alharbi et al., 2012). Camels have been found to be infected with MAP-S strains (Ghosh et al., 2012).

Paratuberculosis was first reported in llamas (Lama glama) in North America (Belknap et al., 1994), but a review in 2000 considered it was uncommon in llamas and alpacas (Lama pacos) in the USA (Miller et al., 2000). Paratuberculosis has also been occasionally reported in alpacas in Australia (Ridge et al., 1995; Harkin, 1998), the UK (Davis et al., 1998) and New Zealand (Gibson and Varney, 2007). Clinical disease has occurred in 12-24-month-old alpacas as well as in adults, with signs of diarrhoea, weight loss and hypo- proteinaemia. As with other species, necropsy showed emaciation, thickened intestines and en­larged mesenteric lymph nodes (Belknap et al., 1994).

A study conducted in the USA on 84 llamas and 16 alpacas in a research herd be­lieved to be free of paratuberculosis infection was designed to test the specificity of modified antibody-based diagnostic assays (Kramsky et al., 2000; Miller et al., 2000). The specific­ity of the ELISAs ranged from 48-98% and the agar gel immunodiffusion assay had a specific­ity of 100% on these samples, leading to the recommendation that seropositive results re­quire culture confirmation. A modified com­mercial bovine ELISA appears to give a good balance of sensitivity (67%) and specificity (99%) (Kramsky et al., 2000).

Paratuberculosis can be managed and eliminated by combining stringent manage­ment with frequent testing and culling, or by combining vaccination (where permitted) with management of faecal-oral transmission (Stehman, 1996). Management of faecal-oral transmission is particularly important to pre­vent exposure of young stock to the infection. In Australia, a market assurance programme, AlpacaMAP, has been developed for the al­paca industry and it is an integral part of the Australian National Johne's Disease Program. This programme provides a herd classification scheme to assure alpaca breeders and their clients that participating herds have been ob­jectively assessed as having a low risk of MAP infection. Details may be obtained from the following website: https://www.animalhealth australia.com.au/what-we-do/endemic-dis- ease/maps/alpacamap/.

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