Bibliographical Essay

On violence in the modern Middle East see Hamit Bozarslan's studies, including Une histoire de la violence au Moyen-Orient: de la fin de I’Empire ottoman a Al-Qaida (Paris: La Decouverte, 2008).

A general approach to religion and violence can be found in MarkJuergensmeyer et al. (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Violence (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013); instructive for the Cold War period is Paul T. Chamberlin, The Cold War's Killing Fields: Rethinking the Long Peace (New York: HarperCollins, 2018). A pioneering synopsis of religious aspects in the Armenian genocide and the Shoah is Omer Bartov et al. (eds.), In God's Name: Genocide and Religion in the Twentieth Century (New York: Berghahn, 2001). New insights into jihad in World War I are given in Erik-Jan Zürcher (ed.), Jihad and Islam in World War I: Studies on the Ottoman Jihad on the Centenary of Snouck Hurgronje's ‘Holy War Made in Germany' (Leiden: Leiden University Press, 2016).

Studies on modern Levant-centred eschatology include Hans-Lukas Kieser, The Nearest East: American Millennialism and Mission to the Middle East (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2010) and Anita Shapira, ‘Ben-Gurion and the Bible: The Forging of an Historical Narrative?', Middle Eastern Studies 33.4 (1997), 645-74.

Studies on the 1894-6 and 1909 massacres, including forced conversions, are Jelle Verhej, ‘Diyarbekir and the Armenian Crisis of 1895', in Joost Jongerden and Jelle Verheij (eds.), Social Relations in Ottoman Diyarbekir 1870-1915 (Leiden: Brill, 2012), pp. 85-146), Owen Robert Miller, ‘Sasun 1894: Mountains, Missionaries and Massacres at the end of the Ottoman Empire', unpublished PhD thesis, Columbia University New York, 2015, and Etudes armeniennes contemporaines 2017, a thematic issue on ‘The Massacres of the Hamidian Period'. On forced conversion see Selim Deringil, Conversion and Apostasy in the Late Ottoman Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012).

Literature on the Young Turk genocide of 1915-16 includes the comprehensive Raymond Kevorkian, The Armenian Genocide: A Complete History (London: I. B. Tauris, 2011) (the 1909 Adana massacres are covered on pp. 71-117). For a list of literature, see Ronald Grigor Suny, ‘Armenian Genocide', in 1914-1918-online: International Encyclopedia of the First World War (Berlin, 2015). On fatal acceptance, in the Lausanne Treaty, of domestic mass violence, and the role model of Turkish nationalism for interwar Germany, see Hans-Lukas Kieser and Dominik Schaller (eds.), The Armenian Genocide and the Shoah (Zurich: Chronos, 2002), Stefan Ihrig, Atatürk in the Nazi Imagination (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014) and Ihrig, Justifying Genocide: Germany and the Armenians from Bismarck to Hitler (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016).

On the Great War as part of a larger cataclysm (1912-22) see Hans-Lukas Kieser, Kerem Oktem and Maurus Reinkowski (eds.), World War I and the End of the Ottomans: From the Balkan Wars to the Armenian Genocide (London: I. B. Tauris, 2015). On Ziya Gokalp's ideology and Talaat Pasha's politics in that era see Hans-Lukas Kieser, Talaat Pasha: Father of Modern Turkey, Architect of Genocide (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2018). On the Balkan background see Ipek Yosmaoglu, Religion, Violence, and the Politics of Nationhood in Ottoman Macedonia, 1878-1908 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2014).

On the Balkan Wars as a matrix of fear, revenge and violence see Eyal Ginio, The Ottoman Culture of Defeat: The Balkan Wars and their Aftermath (London, Hurst, 2016). An analysis of denial and justification of violence by Turkish leaders is Fatma M. Goijek, Denial of Violence: Ottoman Past, Turkish Present, and Collective Violence against the Armenians, 1789-2009 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015).