Conclusion

In accordance with the title of this chapter, the relationship between the state, on the one hand, and the Church and the city, on the other, may be understood as a competition that was finally won by the state.

The period considered so far, from the early Middle Ages until the seventeenth century, shows a significant development in this direction, particularly through the Reformation and the conquest of Italy in the sixteenth century. However, we must also consider the importance of influence and cooperation. The royal administration was in many ways influenced by the ecclesiastical one; churchmen played an important part in the king’s service; ecclesiastical law became a model for royal legislation and the kings found legitimation for their rule in the Christian idea of the king as God’s representative on Earth and the defender of Christian orthodoxy. Cities were an important source of income for most kings and experts from the Italian cities played a significant part in the royal administration as well as in exploiting the wealth of the Spanish colonies after the Great Discoveries. Moreover, the most successful states in the early modern period, the Dutch Republic and England, in many ways continued the practices and ideas that had developed in the medieval cities. Thus, the ancestor of the early modern state is not only the medieval kingdom but also the medieval Church and city.

Notes

1 For the following, see Ladurie, Montaillou, pp. 14—21.

2 Ibid., p. 432.

3 Ibid., p. 37.

4 Eisenstadt, The Origins and Diversity; Goldstone, Why Europe?, pp. 34—51.

5 Moore, The War on Heresy. For a criticism of Moore and other revisionists, see Taylor, Heresy in Medieval France, pp. 76—80, and Biller, ‘Goodbye to Waldensianism’, and ‘[Review of] R.I. Moore’ and ‘Heresy and Dissent’. For the traditional view, see Hamilton, ‘Religion and the Laity’ and ‘The Albigensian Crusade and Heresy’.

The recent general account by Ames, Medieval Heresies, pp. 28—78, does not express any opinion on the issue.

6 Reynolds, ‘Social Mentalities’; van Engen, ‘The Christian Middle Ages’; Biller, ‘Popular Religion’; Arnold, ‘Histories and Historiographies’; Yarrow, ‘Religion, Belief and Society’; and Forrest, Trustworthy Men, p. 7.

7 Riley-Smith, ‘The Crusades 1095-1198’, pp. 539-40.

8 For the following, see Stow, ‘The Church and the Jews’; and Bartlett, England, pp. 34660.

9 Joinville, Life of St Louis, p. 175.

10 Smalley, The Study of the Bible, pp. 149-72.

11 Southern, Western Views, pp. 37-9.

12 For the following, see Levack, The Witch Hunt; Sallman, ‘Sorciere’; Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic, pp. 520-3, 553-60; Rowlands, ‘Witchcraft and Gender’; and Hutton, The Witch, pp. 147-211.

13 Christensen-Nugues, ‘Och de skal vara ett hjarta’, pp. 9-14; The bishop’s objections are referred to in a letter from Margaret Paston, Margery’s mother, to her husband, Paston Letters, vol. I, p. 341.

14 Diplomatarium Norvegicum, vol. V, no. 72.

15 Brundage, Law, Sex and Christian Society, pp. 333-7.

16 Duby, Medieval Marriage, pp. 25-81; L’Hermite-Leclerq, ‘L’ordre feodal (XI-XIIe siecles)’.

17 Dyer, Making a Living, pp. 155-60.

18 Cobban, The Medieval Universities, pp. 3-121.

19 Febvre, The Problem of Unbelief.

20 The development of the medieval papacy has been subject to considerable discussion, of a confessional as well as scholarly character. Walter Ullmann, The Growth of Papal Government, regards it as a consistent attempt to put into a practice a doctrine of hegemony going back to late antiquity, whereas others, like R.W. Southern, Western Society and the Church, and Barraclough, The Medieval Papacy, have a more pragmatic approach, paying greater attention to circumstances and emphasizing the parallel to the growth of secular government. See, most recently, Cushing, ‘Papal Authority’.

21 Southern, Western Society and the Church, pp.

109-25.

On constitutional thought in canon law and the Church, see Tierney, Religion, Law and The Origins of Papal Infallibility.

Barraclough, The Medieval Papacy, pp. 135—8.

Kaminsky, ‘The Great Schism’, pp. 674—8.

See Strayer, The Reign of Philip the Fair, pp. 285—97 and Barber, The Trial of the Templars, pp. 283—311, with a discussion of a series of previous accounts. There is general agreement among historians that the accusations against the Templars were false or at least vastly exaggerated, but opinions differ about Philip’s motives. He obviously wanted to appropriate the Templars’ great wealth but religious motives may also have played a part, either Philip’s wish to gain a reputation for orthodoxy or some belief in the truth of the accusations, as suggested, among others, by Strayer.

Otto of Freising, The Deeds of Frederick, pp. 144—9.

Benson, ‘Political Renovatio’; Bagge, ‘Ideas and Narrative’, pp. 356—60.

Otto of Freising, The Deeds of Frederick, pp. 234—5; cf. Bagge, ‘The Model Emperor’, p. 72. For example, Brown, Through the Eye of a Needle, pp. 4—8.

For the following, see Waley, The Italian City Republics.

For the following, see Ferraro, Venice, pp. 1—25.

McNeill, Venice, pp. 48—56.

Frankopan, The Silk Roads, pp. 140-69, 175-86.

For the following, see de Roover, ‘The Organization of Trade’, pp. 70-105.

McNeill, Venice, pp. 5-6, 49-51.

Acemoglou and Robinson, Why Nations Fail, pp. 154-6.

Machiavelli, Florentine Histories, vol. III.16, p. 127.

Najemy, History of Florence, pp. 63-95.

Lampert, Annales, pp. 185-93; Bagge, Kings, Politics, pp. 266-9.

Spruyt, The Sovereign State, p. 149.

Bartlett, The Making of Europe, pp. 167-96; Dollinger, The German Hansa.

Olesen, ‘Inter-Scandinavian Relations’, pp. 718-19.

Disputatio inter clericum et militem; cf. Tierney, The Crisis, pp. 193-210.

Strayer, ‘The Laicization’; Oakley, The Mortgage, pp. 39-41 and The Watershed, pp. 1-50. Spruyt, The Sovereign State, pp. 153-80.

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Source: Bagge Sverre H.. State Formation in Europe, 843-1789: A Divided World. Routledge,2019. — 306 p.. 2019

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