Conclusion

Global ecological change is irrevocably connected to the rise of large and exten­sive empires and their associated systems of environmental exploitation. Control and exploitation of resources consolidated and expanded imperial power through conquest, technological innovation, plant-and-animal breeding, and improved transportation networks.

Forms of resource use shaped empires, too. Settled agriculture and hydrological control could encourage strong centralized states able to coordinate labor, facilitate transportation, and process resources. Agriculture made it easier for authorities to control a settled population, but such concentrated settlement could also facilitate disease transmission. Animal domestication brought benefits (food, labor, protein, sometimes military advantage), yet made it easier for microorganisms to jump from one species to another, especially when humans and animals lived in close proximity.

Empires connected and moved formerly geographically disparate people, organisms, and commodities around the world. After 1500 trade networks and empires came to encompass the globe. Since then, millions of people, thousands of plant and an­imal species, countless micro-organisms, not to mention millions of tons of precious metals, minerals, and other resources like timber and fertilizer have moved from one part of the world to another.

Innovation in resource exploitation accelerated post-1500. Plantation agricul­ture responded to global sugar demand, by bringing together slave labor, trade networks, different ecologies, and raw materials. Especially in the nineteenth century, European metropoles exported environmental problems to their global empires, creating ghost acres that freed up labor and resources at home—a process that, as we show, was as vital to industrialization and Europe's rise as new energy exploitation (fossil fuels).

As a result of complex and contingent processes, depending on social, cultural, political, and environmental factors, imperial exploitation especially post-1750 transformed oceans, lands, soils—even atmosphere and geology. At the same time, imperial experiences of extinction and depletion produced new ways of using and understanding nature. Loss encouraged more efficient and innovative ways to exploit and conserve nature (although not always successfully), but also new disciplines that sought to understand such processes. Today, we are grappling with these environmental legacies as we confront our own particular challenges.

Acknowledgments

We thank the following for generously commenting on drafts: Peter Fibiger Bang, Peter Holland, Edward D. Melillo, Brian Moloughney, David Moon, Xiongbo Shi, Paul Star, Ryan Tucker Jones, and James L. A. Webb Jr.

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