Conclusions

The parallels between the medieval Caliphate, the papacy, and the Holy Roman em­perorship with which this chapter began are a function of the common origins of the Islamic world and Christian Europe in the transformation of the Roman Empire in late antiquity.⁹⁶ What made Islam different from the Latin West was that Roman (and Sasanian) hegemony was ended by nomad conquest in a matter of decades,

⁹² Crone 1990

⁹³ Daniel 1979; Agha 2003.

⁹⁴ Bulliet 1979.

⁹⁵ Crone 2004, 61.

⁹⁶ The point is developed in Fowden 1993.

and that the new elite had come from a place on the former imperial periphery where a significant variant of the monotheist ideology at the core had taken hold. As a result, the Arabian armies appropriated functioning imperial administrative structures in the name of an Arabian strand of monotheism which sustained a dis­tinctive religious and cultural identity.^[1083]

The upheavals of civil war overturned the imperial elite on three occasions in the name of this religion. Meanwhile, the knowledge required for administration, and for the interpretation of the religious tradition, became a source of social power for two new, overlapping, social classes: Perso-Islamic administrative traditions were the preserve of the secretarial courtly elite; Islamic scriptural and interpre­tive traditions became the basis of the authority of the far larger and more socially diverse networks of ‘ulama’. These classes were partially detached from centralized imperial power: the kuttab could serve any Muslim ruler; most ‘ulama’ were rooted in the economic and social networks of the burgeoning provincial cities. As im­perial power collapsed, these classes sustained a distinctively Islamic civilization, while they, and many of their military overlords, still looked to the caliphate as a figurehead embodying the unity of God's community on earth.

Further Reading

Besides those works cited in the preceding, two important overviews of early Islamic history include: H. Kennedy, The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the sixth century to the eleventh century. 3rd ed. (London, 2016); C. F. Robinson, ed., The New Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1: The Formation of the Islamic World Sixth to Eleventh Centuries (Cambridge, 2010). On the conquests and the Umayyad period, see: R. G. Hoyland, In God’s Path: The Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic empire (Oxford, 2015) and G. R. Hawting, The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661-750, 2nd ed. (London, 2000). On the scholarly religious classes of Sunni Islam, see J. E. Brockopp, Muhammad’s Heirs: The Rise of Muslim Scholarly Communities, 622-950 (Cambridge, 2017).

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