First Empire

From the ascension of Assur-uballit 1(1353-1318 bce), Assyria underwent the first phase of rapid growth, both through military conquest and diplomatic overture. During its initial stages the empire formed a loose network of control, based on ter­ritorial provinces and client states.

Religious and militaristic ideology placed the king in the center of the universe and presented Assyria as a land enclosed by a ring of evil.^[207] Social justice was a royal domain, and it was the sovereign’s prime duty to subjugate internal malevolence and eliminate outside threats to civilization. A number of characteristic elements in Assyrian imperialism were instituted already during the fourteenth to twelfth centuries bce, including the systematic deportation of populations to concentrate labor resources and weaken local identity. Other elements include the creation of a provincial and transport infrastructure based on military fortresses and adminis­trative centers,^[208] and the creation of standing garrisons that could operate in addi­tion to larger hosts levied through drafts.^[209]

Assur-uballit I was the first Assyrian ruler to assume the traditional Mesopotamian royal title of “king” (sarru),^[210] and his royal epithets underline his priestly duties, his functions as shepherd of the people, builder, and supreme judge.

The mechanisms of taxation in the early empire are not well understood but appear to have been based on trade and the access to land.^[215] New areas were put under cultivation, with the royal family itself becoming the largest landowner. Plots of crown land were allocated to individual users in exchange for military and civil services (ilku). The state would also recruit people based on privately owned land that came without an ilku-obligation, but how this was practiced is less clear. The only direct taxes payable by individuals were levied on imported goods—sometimes as much as 25 percent of the final price.^[216] Finally, there was a variety of income flowing directly to the ruler and his family; key terms include “tribute” (madattu) that was paid also by the client states, “audience gifts” (namurtu) presented at court, and “booty” (hubtu/sallatu) collected during military campaigns. An important dy­namic existed between royal and temple administrations in regard to the storage and accumulation of agricultural surplus.^[217]

Other than permanent garrisons, the early empire had no standing army.^[218] Instead, the state maintained detailed registers of personnel—sometimes counting more than 2,000 individuals^[219]—who could be mobilized quickly on a short-term basis for defensive operations, military campaigns, and civil projects. The military leaders constituted the highest officials of the royal administration, and included the “vizier” (sukkallu), the “commander-in-chief” (tartennu), and the “herald” (nagiru). During the late empire these men came to form a group known collec­tively as “the magnates,” who may have been part of a royal council.^[220]