Fortifications

From the Neolithic Period onwards in Europe, some settlements were fortified through the construction of walls around their perimeters. During the Late Bronze Age a great many hilltops were fortified, and the tradition was maintained in the Early Iron Age.

In the Late Iron Age, during the second and final centuries bce, commu­nities throughout the central regions of the Continent established the largest settlements of prehistoric Europe, known to modern archaeology as oppida after Julius Caesar's use of that term in reference to the sites in Gaul against which he led his legions between 58 and 51 bce. The great majority of the oppida, which can be hundreds of hectares in size, are situated on hilltops and have very large walls of earth, timber and cut stone blocks surrounding them. Manching in Bavaria, the most comprehensively excavated oppidum, unusual in being situated on flat land near the Danube River, was protected by the Danube on one side, by the Paar River on another, and by marshes on the other two. The amount of labour that was required to build its walls would have been immense. Herbert Lorenz estimates that the construction of the wall system at Manching consumed some 60,000 large trees, 15,000 pounds of iron nails and 250,000 cubic metres of earth and cut stone.^[296]

Julius Caesar, in his account of the war that he waged in Gaul, describes with admiration the structure of the walls.^[297] According to his account, wooden beams were arranged on the ground two feet apart, then layers of cut stone blocks were added between and on top of the beams.

In earlier days of archaeology, the oppida and their walls were interpreted almost exclusively as defensive in purpose, but more recently many investi­gators have emphasised their demonstrative aspect - designed, it is argued, to impress friends and foes by the might of the community residing inside. But from Caesar's account of his conduct of the war in Gaul it is clear that, when needed, they could serve defensive purposes (though they were not effective enough for the Gauls to hold off the Roman attackers). The continental oppida occur from central France in the west to Slovakia in the east, and from the Alps in the south to the North European Plain in the north. In Britain, the term oppidum means something different - an extensive Late Iron Age settlement, but without the hilltop siting or massive defensive walls. Yet hill forts are important in Britain throughout the Iron Age. Maiden Castle is the most visually striking hill fort in Europe, with its enormous multiple walls defending the hilltop location.^[299] It is just one of a whole series of important hilltop settlements of Iron Age Britain.

As examples of Iron Age hill forts, I cite here one from the Early Iron Age and two oppida from the Late Iron Age. The Heuneburg, situated above the upper Danube River in Württemberg, has been under investigation for well over half a century. The Iron Age occupation of the site dates to between about 600 bce and 480 bce.^[300] The site is on a plateau above the surrounding land.

Stare Hradisko in Moravia in the Czech Republic is a Late Iron Age walled settlement of the oppida type.^[302] These walled hill fort settlements date from the beginning of the second to the end of the first century bce, and some continued in use into the first century ce. Excavations at the site revealed a complex settlement, with roads dividing the site into distinct precincts, each with residential structures, storage pits and craft workshops.

At Manching in southern Germany, a comprehensive study of the numer­ous weapons found on the site has shown that both warfare and ritual deposition are represented.^[303] They include swords, scabbards, chain-link sword-belts and belt hooks, spearheads, lance points, metal parts of shields, arrowheads and fragments of helmets and of chainmail. The identification of both major functions of weapons at Manching - as implements of combat and as ritual objects - underscores the multiple purposes that weapons served during this period.