The First Foreign Campaigns

Prince “Baida” Vyshnevetsky had taken irregular steppe frontiersmen and hunters and established what soon would become an effective military force, an army capable of fighting against regular troops.

The Zaporozhian Sich was a military stronghold in the traditional manner of Rus. Onlyfighting men were allowed to reside there, and all others such as children, elderly family members—particularly women—were strictly forbidden. An eye had to be kept on supplies, and discipline maintained. We don’t know what Prince Vyshnevetsky s ultimate intentions were; perhaps it was the first in a series of strongholds which were to be built “Down Under” by the steppe Cossacks, at first under his command but eventually to be turned over to the king. If that was his intention it was not to be. Military discipline did not replace the traditional freedom and liberty of the steppe, and all officers including the commanding ataman (later Hetman) were elected, as were his adjutant (^αosauΓ), the “obosny” in charge of supplies the wagon train and the artillery, and the judge. All the rank and file, the entire brotherhood was sovereign and since both judge and ataman were elected independently, both were answerable only to the rank and file and neither could interfere in the duties of the other. The rank and file, assembled as a “rada” council, also made all major decisions. Officers could be deposed at will, and voting was by throwing caps in the air for a candidate who had been Previouslynominated until an obvious majority became apparent. There were two “radas,” one of the officers and another for the rank and file, but it was the latter which was sovereign and established all rules for the Zaporozhian Army. It decided on military campaigns, conducted negotiations with foreign powers, entered into treaties and sent envoys abroad to convey the “radas” wishes.

In peacetime it could disagree with the elected judge and try and punish individual Cossacks, even with the death penalty. With time, firm rules and regulations were developed, together with a command structure whose ranks reflected both a Sarmatian-Turkic steppe origin and that of Kyiv Rus.

Not surprisingly, the Zaporozhian Sich became the center of a self-governing and independent host which set its own policies and conducted foreign affairs, as decided by a general meeting of the rank and file ^αrada.” This was commented upon by a Venetian minister Alberto Vimina in his memoirs after he visited Zaporozhia:

According to their appearance and manners the Kozaks seem to be simple, but the fact of the matter is that they are not simple and do not lack a keen sense of perception. This can be grasped by their conversation and their method of government. In the Rada the Kozaks deliberate various matters, and support their viewpoints without any ostentation, aiming always at the improvement of the common lot. If they recognize that the viewpoints of others are better, they are not ashamed of their own and without stubbornness renounce such support that one which they believe to be more correct. Hence I would say that this Republic could have been compared to the Spartans, if the Kozaks respected sobriety as highly as did the Spartans.¹⁶

Vimina then writes that their spare income is spent on drink (parties) and generally they do not care about being rich but are satisfied with little, freedom being treasured above all. The Cossacks also developed their own military tactics and strategies in which improvisation played a large part. If a Cossack force was of sufficient size a common tactic was used: a maneuver was to split the entire force into four parts, with one left to guard the closed wagon formation, the “tabor” camp. Another detachment would make its way unseen behind the enemy’s main force and encampment, while the remaining two positioned themselves on the foe’s flanks.

The tactic required the enemy to make the first move and as their formation(s) approached the “tabor” they would be greeted with artillery and musket fire: The detachments on the enemy’s flanks, usually consisting of both infantry and cavalry, would initially give way, until the enemy was committed to an attack on the Cossack camp. Then a runner (“bihun”) would be sent to bring word to advance against the enemy’s flanks while the concealed force would strike the foe’s rear and threaten his camp. The idea was to hem the enemy from all sides and hopefully render his cavalry useless, while inflicting as heavy casualties as possible to cut the enemy down to size. If the Cossacks were outnumbered, a by now demoralized enemy would be allowed to withdraw through a prepared opening and be dealt with at a future date. A variation was to deploy a hidden cavalry detachment which would strike from the rear, sandwiching the enemy between the cavalry charge and an infantry sortie from the wagon “tabor.”

The Zaporozhian Cossacks harbored an Achilles heel, which was Virtuallyimpossible to overcome. All European cavalry used large and powerful horses whose job was to charge and overcome the enemy in a single blow. Like all other inhabitants of the prairies the Cossacks depended on the small but tough, tireless steppe horses whose thick hair allowed them to survive the cold Ukrainian winters without manmade shelters. The steppe horses also required little winter fodder since, unlike their more domesticated cousins, they had preserved the instinct to uncover the dried prairie grasses with their hooves from beneath the snow. As noted by the perceptive Sieur de Beauplan, who witnessed a Polish squadron of 200 horsemen route a much larger force of Cossack cavalry, “Where [the Cossacks] show the most skill is fighting in a Tabor... which they fortify with wagons and defend with musket fire, their main weapon... but on horseback they are not the best... and if they were as valiant on horseback as on foot, I estimate that they would be invincible.”¹⁷ This was something of a paradox, given the future Cossack fame as horsemen.

The maintenance of large chargers was a luxury only some town Cossacks could afford. Indeed it was not always necessary; as Machiavelli wrote, “the strength of all armies, without a doubt, consists in their infantry.”¹⁸

The first test of the Cossack fighting ability against regular troops came soon enough. By the second half of the 16th CenturyMoldavia had become a hotbed of intrigue, with various candidates vying for the Hospodar’s throne and seeking outside support in return for a handsome recompense. One of the claimants, loan Voda “The Brave,” overthrew the reigning Hospodar with Ottoman help, but the Sultan changed his mind and proceeded to switch support to the brother of Wallachia’s Hospodar, Schiopul. Needing manpower, loan found a ready response among the Ukrainian town Cossacks. A Zaporozhian by the name of Ivan Pidkova (“Horseshoe”) stepped forward claiming to be loan’s brother. Pidkova was renowned amongst the Cossacks for his great strength, being able to break a horseshoe in half with his bare hands. After unsuccessfully seeking the support of Prince Kostiantin Ostrohsky and other wealthy Orthodox magnates, he managed to raise a regiment of 330 Cossacks led by AtamanJakiv Shakh, and in 1577 they marched into Moldavia. Although well equipped with firepower the force proved to be too small, and Pidkova returned to Ukraine to raise more men.¹⁹

In the meantime the new Moldavian ruler Petru Schiopul lodged a formal complaint with the Polish court and a royal force was sent to capture Pidkova who was wintering in Nemi- riv, but unable to overcome the Cossacks the king’s troops withdrew to avoid defeat. Now more Cossacks began to join Pid- kova, and leaving a force of400 men behind to guard the Sich he and Shakh with 600 hand-picked Cossacks marched into Moldavia and advanced on the capital, Jassy. The Cossacks were met by Schiopuls army outside the city walls and with 500 TurkishJanissary musketeers in the forefront, greatly outnumbering Pidkovas men.

TheJanissaries decided to fire first and lit the fuses of their arquebus muskets, but the smoke was the signal for the Cossacks to hit the ground, their loaded muskets by their sides. The volley passed harmlessly over their heads; and thinking the Cossacks dead or wounded Schiopul ordered his cavalry to charge, followed by the Janissary infantry. They were met by withering musket fire from the Cossacks, many of whom carried two loaded muskets doubling the firepower of the first (and often critical) volley. It was followed by a Cossack charge with both infantry and Cavalrywhich sent the decimated enemy to flight. On 29 November 1577 the Cossacks entered

Jassy having won a great victory. Later it was said that Za- porozhian Cossacks were immune to lead bullets, a superstition whichwould stand them in good stead in future encounters.

Pidkova was declared “Hospodar” of Moldavia by his men, earning him the loyalty of some anti-Ottoman local units. Most of the Moldavian troops, however, supported by Wallachian and Turkish forces remained loyal to Schiopul who proceeded to gather an even larger army to march on Jassy. The Cossacks decided to meet the enemy in the open field, where their resourcefulness would once again win the day and an even greater victory. Keeping a wary eye on the Moldavian units which were placed in the rear, Ataman Shakh led the Cossackleft wing forward, halting some distance from the Turks who were again in the front lines. When Turkish skirmishes failed to draw out the Cossacks for an attack they decided to launch an infantry charge. It was met with the usual Cossack musket fire and the Turkish ranks broke and began to retreat, followed by a Cossack counterattack. Even so, the Cossacks and their Moldavian allies were greatly outnumbered, and it would be a question of time until they succumbed to superior forces. Their right flank was also being attacked, but Pidkova now played his trump card. Concealed behind the Cossacklines were herds of horses and long-horned cattle, which had been rounded up and were now stampeded into the massed enemy ranks, followed by a Cossack charge.

Schiopuls men suffered a crushing defeat with high casualties and he himself barely managed to escape with his companions and bodyguards.²⁰ No one else had managed to inflict such defeats on Ottoman land forces, and news of the Cossack victories began to spread far and wide.

In desperation, Schiopul appealed for Polish help. An Ottoman force was also on the way and the Cossacks decided to withdraw with their rich spoils, which included fourteen cannons and much military supplies. Heavy snow had fallen on the Ukrainian steppe and they decided to head to Nemiriv rather than return to the Zaporozhian Sich. Pidkova was not aware that the newly elected King Batory of Poland had ordered the governor ofBratslav,Janush Zbarazhsky, to take him prisoner. Not daring to attack the Cossacks, knowing they had wide support in Bratslav, Zbarazhsky convinced Pidkova to meet Batory in Warsaw and settle their differences. The King was preparing for a war with Muscovy but the Ottoman Sultan was threatening to invade unless Pidkova was executed. Not willing to fight on two fronts, Batory had Pidkova arrested and sent in chains to Lvivwhere he was beheaded to the satisfaction of the Sultans envoy who witnessed the execution. The Cossacks had lost a great commander, one who would not be readily replaced.

In the spring of the following year Pidkovas brother Alexander took a Cossack force of some 2,000 men and invaded the Turkish protectorate. This time the Cossacks faced Schio- puΓs Moldavians, Turkish troops and a Transylvanian force commanded by King Batory s brother. After devastating the countryside Alexander s men advanced on Jassy, and refusing to retreat before the much larger force, the Cossacks were defeated. The circumstances of the battle are not known, but if Batory s self-congratulatory letter to Sultan Murad III can be trusted many of the Cossacks—“their best men”—perished, or were taken prisoner. Alexander was also captured and executed by impalement at the Sultan s orders.

Steven Batory OfTransylvania was elected by a split decision of the Polish Sejm and following a short military conflict he took power in 1576 as the King of Poland and Grand Prince of Lithuania-Rus. One of his first priorities became the recovery of territory lost to Ivan IV of Muscovy. Financed by the merchant banker ofltalian origin Sebastian Montelupe and not waiting for the tight-fisted nobility to vote new taxes, Batory started hiring Hungarian, German and Scottish mercenaries. He also replaced the light cavalry of the nobles’ levy by a new heavy cavalry formation, the hussars. Originating in Serbia where they were known as “gusars,” they sought refuge in Hungary in the 14th century after the Serbs were overcome by the Ottoman Turks. Only nobility could join, and Batory specified they wear uniform Hungarian-type gear consisting of helmet, breastplate, lance, saber, pistol and other armor, “properly made on anvile from brass and iron.” They were allowed ornaments such as feathers and animal skins, becoming known for the distinctive feathered “wings” which they carried at first attached to the saddle and later mounted on the rider s back-plate armor. The reason for the wings seems to be unknown, although presumably their function was to panic enemy horses during a charge. Most of the cavalry, however, about 85 percent, still remained of the light type.²¹

Batory could not afford to antagonize the powerful Ottoman Sultan, and having executed Pidkova he announced a general crackdown on the Cossacks, forbidding the border Starostas from having anything to do with them. At the same time he realized their value, having experienced Cossack fighting prowess in the conflict with Gdansk. Following his coronation in the spring of 1577 the burghers of the prosperous city-port revolted, and Batory sent a force against them led by Jan Zbarasky A compromise was eventually arrived at but not before the Cossacks inflicted a heavy defeat on a Gdansk army—4,527 dead, IOOO taken prisoner and much booty, including 6 battle flags, as recorded in Polish chronicles.²² As part ofbuilding up his army Batory turned his attention to renewing a royal Cossack regiment. King Zygmunts charter to Jazlo- wiecki establishing Cossack rights was renewed and they were to be placed under the command of Prince Mykhailo Vyshn- evetsky, rather than their own colonel. A regiment of over 500 Cossacks was formed and put on a payroll, each to receive 15 gold zlotys in wartime and a kaftan of the same color for all to serve as a uniform. Each Cossack, however, had to provide his own clothing, also of a specified color, a musket, sword, ax, gunpowder, and lead. They were exempt from taxation and other duties and could pass on property to anyone designated as heir. King Batory also granted the Cossacks the town of Trakhtomyriv on the Dnipro River, just above Kaniv, as a general recuperation area and it was to be provided with a hospital. Trakhtomyriv soon became an official Cossack seat and the location for an arsenal outside of the Sich, as well as a secure place in which to mill gunpowder and stock supplies. Perhaps Batoryhad in mind to encourage the establishment of a Cossack center away from the lower regions of the Dnipro river, which could compete with and replace the Zaporozhian Sich as the Cossack military “headquarters.”

Jealous of their exclusive privileges and legal rights, the nobility again objected to granting the Cossacks privileges which resembled their own, and in 1578, to placate them, Batory created the highest courts of appeal to consist exclusively of nobles. The Cossacks’ recently confirmed “rights and freedoms” also continued to be ignored by the border governors and “starostas” who persisted in the old abuses: “arresting and putting them (Cossacks) in prison without cause, inventing taxes on merchandise, imposing (obligatory) Christmas gifts’ and other taxes to be exacted from them, and appropriating the property of deceased Cossacks while passing over their relatives and friends.”

The war with Ivan the Terrible began 30 August 1579, with Batorys 56,000-man invasion and attack on Polatsk. The following year on 5 September the Muscovite fortress of Veliki Luki was captured by Prince Zamoysky at the head of a 48,0 OO- man army, and with the surrender of the smaller fortresses in the region the road to the major center of Pskov was open. Ba- tory’s army reached the city walls in August 1581 but after a 5- month siege Pskovwas still in Muscovite hands.

In January, Ivan the Terrible offered favorable terms and the Livonian war came to an end. Batory retained Polatsk and gained Livonia (Latvia) but had to give up Veleki Luki. For the first time the Cossacks, both of the towns and the steppe, had become involved in a major foreign conflict. Besides Vysh- nevetsky’s royal (registered) regiment other Cossacks from Ukrainian and Podilian towns also fought in Batory’s army, and about 2,000 took part in campaigns in Muscovite Severia, today’s north central Ukraine, burning towns and destroying all strongholds in the region. Some nobles of Lithuania-Rus also raised Cossack bands (“vatahy”) under their own commands, such as Fylon Kmytawho raised a regiment of 500 cavalry and 500 foot Cossacks. On the opposing side, some 500 Don and Zaporozhian Cossacks led by one Misko were hired by Ivan the Terrible to take part in the defense of Pskov.

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Source: Basilevsky Alexander. Early Ukraine: A Military and Social History to the Mid-19th Century. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers,2016. — 397 p.. 2016

The First Foreign Campaigns

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