Over a period of many centuries, Chinggis Khan and his exploits have attracted widespread attention.
The Mongols established one of the largest empires in the history of the world. Their military campaigns and, above all, the consequences of their conquests have had a major impact on the history of humanity.
To many scholars, thinkers, and interested community, the classic question of Mongolian history is how and why a vast world empire, which plunged many neighbouring nations into horror and destroyed them, emerged from a small, little-known people, and, afterward, why this vast polity has disappeared, as sweepingly as it came, from the foreground of world history. The Mongol Empire was the largest nomadic empire ever. But to what extent is it appropriate to use the concept of “empire” to refer to the medieval Mongols and other nomadic empires? Usually when one speaks of “empire,” certain distinctive characteristics are implied, such as expansive territory, a spatial division into the metropolis and its colonies, and a specific ideology of imperialism. Nomadic empires differed from agrarian ones in that the steppe metropolis was not a polity with an advanced economy, cutting-edge technology, extensive financial resources, and a large populace. On the contrary, the population size and density of the nomads were relatively small. They were distinguished only by their excellent military organization and, occasionally, by new military technologies. Nomadic empires existed through the exacting of gifts and tribute, through war and pillage, and through income from transcontinental trade.It is possible to identify the following defining characteristics of nomadic empires: (1) a multilevel, hierarchical character of social organization, permeated at all levels by tribal and supra-tribal genealogical relationships; (2) a two-part (into two “wings”) or a three-part (into two “wings” and a center) principle for the administrative division of the empire; (3) a military-hierarchical character of social organization of the metropolis, most frequently by the decimal principle; (4) the yam postal system, which consisted of relay stations, as a specific method for the organization of the administrative infrastructure; (5) a specific system for the succession of power (the empire was the property of the khan' s entire clan, there was corulership of wings and sub-wings, and the institution of the kurultai, a convention of the nomadic elite, shared ultimate authority); (6) a flexible foreign policy toward
Nikolay N. Kradin, The Mongol Empire and the Unification of Eurasia In: The Oxford World History of Empire.
Edited by: Peter Fibiger Bang, C.A. Bayly, Walter Scheidel, Oxford University Press (2021). © Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780197532768.003.0018. agricultural states (ranging from raids and the exacting of tribute to subordinating them to direct rule); and (7) a particular ideology—the belief in the Eternal Sky.[1363]Three models of nomadic empires existed: (1) nomads and settled agriculturists coexisted at a distance—the nomads received surplus products by means of distant exploitation: raids, the demanding of “gifts” (in essence, a racket or unequal trade) and the like (the Xiongnu, Xianbei, Turks, Uyghurs, and others); (2) agriculturists were more permantly subjected into a state of dependency by the nomads —in this case the form of exploitation was tribute (the Golden Horde, Yuan, and others); and (3) nomads conquered the agricultural society and settled on its territory— instead of pillage and tribute, they instituted regular taxation on the agriculturists and town dwellers. These are ideal types. In reality, over the course of history, one model could alternate with another. And so it was with the Mongols. Initially, they intended to create a typical nomadic empire with distant exploitation of agrarian civilizations. However, as they continued to conquer various regions, they started to utilize different methods to procure resources.
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