THE FALL OF THE REPUBLIC

The Republican constitution was not stable. The system of consuls was designed specifically to avoid a return to tyranny of rule by monarchs, and it was designed for a small state, not for an empire.

In the last century or so before the establishment of the Empire, the Republican constitution came increasingly under threat. By this time, the Roman army was a professional force dependent for its pay and conditions on its generals. Several generals were able to use this fact to enforce their will and seize power for themselves. The most important of these was Julius Caesar.

Following his conquest of Gaul, Caesar returned to Italy. Ignoring a decree requiring him to resume his status as a private citizen, Caesar crossed the Rubicon, the river marking the boundary of Italy, with his army in 49 bc. In the civil war that followed, Caesar emerged victorious and was appointed dictator for life. Although he publicly refused to be crowned king, this was too open an attempt to grab personal power, and Caesar was assassinated in 44 bc.

Caesar’s assassination did not, however, lead to the restoration of the Republic, for which his killers hoped. Factional fighting and further civil war led in 27 bc to the emergence of Caesar’s heir, Octavian (later Augustus), as de facto emperor.