FUTURE DIRECTIONS

There are a number of interesting but rarely addressed ideas worthy of future study. For example, disease resistance mechanisms are energetically costly but rarely measured (Groater and Holmes 1997); in one case, the fever accom­panying malaria can increase the human basal metabolic rate by 40% (Hall 1985, Holmes and Zohar 1990).

Resistance in parasites may carry a cost in reduced productivity (Groater and Holmes 1997). For example, mice resistant to Nemato- spiroides dubius had a larger body size, but decreased litter size (Brindley and Dobson 1981). Much of the damage ascribed to parasites may in fact be due to host responses to the parasites, so-called “immunopathology” (Castro 1990).

Specific mechanisms that confer resistance to one parasite may increase susceptibility to another parasite (Groater and Holmes 1997). Elevated production of new red blood cells in mice confers resistance to one isolate of malaria (Plasmodium yoelii) but susceptibility to another (Sayles and Wassom 1988). One also sees this interplay among cattle in resistance to hel­minths versus ticks (McKinnon 1990), as well as between Eimeria tenella and other coccidia in chickens (Bumstead et al. 1991).

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