INFLUENZA IN OTHER SPECIES

Leslie a. reperanT, albert d.m.e. Osterhaus² AND THIJS KUIKEN²

¹Department of Virology, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands

²Department of Virology, Erasmus MC, and Artemis Research Institute for Wildlife Health in Europe, Rotterdam, The Netherlands

Wild species in Europe other than birds and marine mammals are likely to be accidental hosts for influenza viruses.

There is serologic evidence of infection of wild boar ) Sus scrofa) with swine influenza viruses of H1N1, H3N2 and H1N2 subtypes in Germany, Poland and Spain. These subtypes frequently infect domestic pigs⁾²⁾. Seroprevalence varies geographically and by subtype, and ranges from less than 1% to 8%. Domestic pigs are descendants of wild boars, so wild boar are likely to be infected with swine influenza viruses via the respiratory route and may poten­tially act as a reservoir for swine influenza viruses.

In principle, mammals, reptiles and amphibians that are predators of — or scavenge on -wild waterbirds, or share habitat with them, can become infected with LPAIV. However, there is no virological or serological evidence for this in Europe.

The pathogenesis of HPAIV H5N1 infection in carni­vores has been studied in experimentally infected domestic cats, red foxes and ferrets)^70-72). Feeding on contaminated bird carcasses or meat may cause infection by two routes. The first route is inhalation of virus, causing infection of the respiratory tract. The second route — confirmed by direct virus inoculation into the stomach (Reperant et al., unpublished data)(⁷²) — is ingestion of virus, resulting in infection of the intestine.

From the initial site of replication, HPAIV H5N1 may spread to other organs via blood or lymph (Reperant et al., unpublished data). In mice, spread via neurons also has been demonstrated. Most wild carnivores found infected to date have HPAIV H5N1 in multiple organs, including the brain, lungs, liver, heart and kidneys. HPAIV H5N1 replication in epithelial or parenchymal cells results in necrosis and inflammation, which may be severe⁽²⁾. Little is known about the immune response of wild carni­vores to HPAIV H5N1.

HPAIV H5N1 infection in carnivores causes systemic lesions with variable involvement of different organs, most consistently brain, lung and liver. Gross lesions may include consolidation or haemorrhage in the lungs, and foci of necrosis or haemorrhage in the liver. Microscopic lesions consist of foci of acute necrosis and inflammation in multiple organs. This includes non-suppurative encephalitis, broncho-interstitial pneumonia and necrotiz­ing hepatitis, associated with viral replication in neurons and glial cells, bronchiolar epithelial cells, pneumocytes and alveolar macrophages, and hepatocytes, respectively. Other organs with microscopic lesions associated with virus replication include heart, pancreas, intestine, spleen, kidneys and adrenal glands⁽²⁾.

Pathology of swine influenza infection in wild boars is not reported but in domestic pigs consists of necrotizing broncho-interstitial pneumonia.

Infection with HPAIV H5N1 may cause severe clinical disease and death in infected felids, mustelids and viver- rids. Based on experimental infections in domestic dogs and red foxes, clinical disease in canids is less severe. Clini­cal signs in infected carnivores are high fever, respiratory distress, serosanguineous nasal discharge and neurological signs, such as loss of balance, hind limb paralysis, ataxia and circling.

The laboratory methods used for diagnosis in birds can be applied to other species. Tissues sampled in carnivores suspected of HPAIV H5N1 infection should include lung, liver and brain. Tissues sampled in cases suspected of other influenza virus infections should include upper and lower respiratory tract.

For HPAIV H5N1, management and control measures in other animal species should be directed at preventing transmission from poultry or wild birds. HPAIV H5N1 vaccines have been developed for domestic cats, but their efficacy in other carnivore species is unknown. For swine influenza viruses, control measures consist of preventing contact between domestic pigs and wild boar.

HPAIV H5N1 infection is of public health concern. However, the risk of transmission to humans from infected carnivores is small compared with the risk of transmission from infected poultry. Appropriate protective measures should be taken during necropsy of carnivores suspected of HPAIV H5N1 infection. Hunters can be exposed to low pathogenic avian or swine influenza viruses and should also take appropriate protective measures during prepara­tion of game or waterfowl.

HPAIV H5N1 can cause severe disease and death in many species of carnivores. This has implications for endangered carnivore species, either captive or free ranging, in areas where HPAIV H5N1 occurs in poultry or wild birds.

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