Ethical Systems

China's major belief systems fostered the gradual rise of gentility over the centuries. Confucianism, Buddhism and Daoism all exerted a pacifying influence.^[1026] Rarely did someone receive inspiration from just one of these intellectual composites.

Righteousness (yi) and ritual propriety (li) stood at the centre of the Confucian ethical system.^[1027] Rituals provided detailed instructions on how to behave in specific situations, while righteousness set down general moral guidelines that could help determine ethical conduct in the absence of a specific rule. These twin ideals had not always been completely peaceful. Ancient rites included some violent ceremonies such as human sacrifice. And some early thinkers appealed to righteousness to justify vengeance and vigilantism. Over time, however, moral authorities steadily reinterpreted these cardinal virtues to restrain extreme emotions and prevent wanton violence. Other Confucian virtues such as benevolence (ren) further deni­grated destructive acts. Overall, the Confucian project aimed to civilise society by moderating behaviour. Propagating benign moral norms encour­aged tolerance and the peaceful settlement of disputes.

The philosopher Xunzi (c. 312-230 bce) explored the relation between Confucian virtue and military force in detail.^[1028] During a debate on military affairs, his pragmatic interlocutors took a conventional view of the matter and emphasised factors such as choosing a battlefield with proper terrain, carefully observing rival troops, and deceiving the enemy.

Representations of Violence in Imperial China difficult to hold. But by winning over his subjects with righteousness and benevolence, he becomes a ‘true' king who rules legitimately and enjoys popular support. Through these sorts of moralistic arguments, Confucian ethical discourse denigrated the efficacy of violence, even during wartime.

Many thinkers conceptualised violence by dichotomising wen (civil) and wu (martial) affairs. Throughout China's history, the relation of these contrary concepts remained highly contested. Although Chinese required a strong tradi­tion of wu to defend the borders, they tended to look down on military matters as a grim necessity. In contrast, they extolled wen as the basis of civilisation. But however morally uplifting and cultured civil values might be, lauding them at the expense of wu could be dangerous, as insufficient respect for military culture would demoralise soldiers and weaken national defence.

Although religion and philosophy could be used in various ways, and often served as justifications for war, in many respects Daoism exerted a tempering influence on Chinese society. Classic Daoist texts taught that weakness can often overcome strength. Automatically responding to a show of force with contrary aggression often makes matters worse. Calm words, an air of humility or a strategic retreat might disarm a threat more effectively than violence. Daoists consider life extremely precious and seek to live as long as possible. Because antagonism and aggression raise the possibility that lives might be cut short, they should be avoided.

Although the teachings of Buddhism differed considerably from those of Daoism and Confucianism, this school of thought also counselled concord over hostility. During the third century, this foreign religion became extre­mely popular and exercised a major influence on the Chinese worldview. The Buddha believed that the workings of karma ultimately hold each of us responsible for actions that cause suffering to others. To ensure a good rebirth, people must forgo violence and practise compassion towards all living things. Buddhists even extended their creed of non-violence to animals.^[1030] Many devout Chinese Buddhists became vegetarian because they

were unwilling to kill an animal or even allow it to be slaughtered on their behalf. While few people could adhere to all of the strictures of Buddhist compassion and non-violence, these lofty values informed quotidian behaviour.