Notes

1 On Wearing Good Lenses

1 William Ward, View of History, Literature, and Mythology of the Hindoos (5th edn rev. 3, Madras: J. Higginbotham, 1863), p. xxix.

2 Cited by Milton Singer, When a Great Tradition Modernizes (New York: Praeger, 1972), p.

3 Ibid.: 18.

4 cf. J. W. McCrindle, Ancient India as Described in Classical Literature (Westminster: Archibald Constable, 1901).

5 Walt Whitman, “A Passage to India” in Emory Holloway, ed., Walt Whitman: Complete Poetry and Selected Prose and Letters (London: The None-Such Press, 1938), pp. 372-81.

6 Cited by Singer, op. cit., p. 26.

7 The Laws of Manu, Tr. Wendy Doniger and Brian K. Smith (New York: Penguin, 1991), pp. xx-xx1.

8 Cited by Singer, op. cit., p. 28.

9 Edward Conze, Buddhism: Its Essence and Development (London: Oxford University Press, 1951), pp. 20-22, 40, et al.; p. 53; pp. 23, 24, et al.

10 Al-Biruni’s India: An Account of the Religion, Philosophy, Literature, Geography, Chronology, Astronomy, Customs, Laws and Astrology of India about AD 1030, Tr. Edward Sachau (London: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., 1910), pp. 24, 28.

11 Ibid.: 110.

12 J. N. Farquhar, The Crown of Hinduism (London: Oxford University Press, 1913); Raimundo Panikkar, The Unknown Christ of Hinduism (Mary Knoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1981).

13 H. Oldenberg, Das Mahabharata (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1922).

14 Mircen Eliade, Cosmos and History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1971 [1954]).

15 Frits Staal, “The Meaninglessness of Ritual” in Ronald Grimes, ed., Readings in Ritual Studies (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1996), pp. 483-94.

16 Caroline Humphrey and James Laidlaw, The Archetypal Actions of Ritual (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994), Chapter 4.

17 Arjun Appadurai, “Kings, Sects and Temples in South India, 1350-1700 AD” in Burton Stein, ed., South Indian Temples (Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1978), pp.

18 Max Weber, Religion in India (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1958).

19 Peter Berger, The Sacred Canopy (Garden City, NJ: Anchor Books, 1969).

20 Rudolph Otto, The Idea of the Holy, Tr. J. W. Harvey (New York: Oxford University Press, 1958).

21 Clifford Geertz, “Religion as a Cultural System” in W. A. Lessa and E. Z. Vogt, eds, Reader in Comparative Religion (4th edn, New York: Harper and Row, 1979).

22 Otto, op. cit., p. 42f.

2 Sources of Indian Religion

1 M. L. K. Murty, “The God Narasimha in the Folk Religion of Andhra Pradesh, South India” in Journal of the Society for South Asian Studies. Vol. 13 (1987), pp. 179-88.

2 See, for example, H. D. Sankalia, Prehistory and Protohistory of India and Pakistan (Bombay: University of Bombay Press, 1962), pp. 152-53.

3 F. R. Allchin, Neolithic Cattlekeepers of South India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1963).

4 Katheryn Linduff in conversation.

5 N. R. Banerjee, The Iron Age in India (Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1965), pp. 55ff.

6 Kenneth A. R. Kennedy, “A Reassessment of the Theories of Racial Origins of the People of the Indus Valley Civilization from Recent Anthropological Data” in K. A. R. Kennedy and G. L. Possehl, eds, Studies in the Archeology and Paleoanthropology of South Asia (New Delhi: American Institute of Indian Studies, 1984), pp. 99-107 and Katheryn Linduff in conversation.

7 Katheryn Linduff in conversation.

8 This interpretation of Indus Valley religion is summarized in A. Hiltebeitel and T. Hopkins, “Indus Valley Religion” in M. Eliade, ed., Encyclopedia of Religion (New York: Macmillan, 1986), Vol. VII, pp. 215-23.

9 See Irene Winter, “Idols of the King: Royal Images as Recipients of Ritual Action in Ancient Mesopotamia” in Journal of Ritual Studies. Vol. 6, No. 1 (Winter, 1992), pp. 13-42.

10 D. P. Agrawal, “The Harappan Legacy: Break and Continuity” in Kennedy and Possehl, 1984, p. 443.

11 See, for example, Ann Feldhaus, Water and Womanhood (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995) and David Shulman, Tamil Temple Myths (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980).

12 A. L. Basham, The Origins and Development of Classical Hinduism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), pp. 43-44.

13 Georges Dumezil, The Destiny of a Warrior, Tr. Alf Hiltebeitel (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970).

14 These positions are summarized in full in Edwin Bryant, The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2001).

15 S. Jamison, Sacrificed Wife, Sacrificer’s Wife: Women, Ritual and Hospitality in Ancient India (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), pp. 30-31.

16 Brian K. Smith, Classifying the Universe (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), pp. 14 and 26ff.

17 Ibid.: 15.

18 Ibid.: 26ff.

19 These rituals are described at length in the scholarly literature. See, especially, J. C. Heesterman, The Ancient Indian Royal Consecration (The Hague: Mouton, 1987) for discussion of the rdjasuya and S. Jamison, op. cit., pp. 65-88 for description of the horse sacrifice.

20 See David Knipe, In the Image of Fire (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1975).

21 P. Olivelle, Tr., The Upanisads (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), p. xlvi.

22 D. Knipe, “Sapindikarana: The Hindu Rite of Entry into Heaven” in Reynolds and Waugh, eds, Religious Encounters with Death: Insights from the History and Anthropology of Religion (University Park, PA: Penn State University Press, 1976), pp. 111-24.

23 Rg Veda 10.90 as cited by Ainslee Embree, ed., Sources of Indian Tradition (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), pp. 89-90.

24 For the dating of these texts, I follow the suggestions of R. S. Sharma, History of Pancala (New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1983) pp. 3-4; Romila Thapar, Ancient Indian Social History: Some Interpretations (New Delhi: Orient Longman, 1978), pp. 42-55; and Aloka Parasher Sen, Mlecchas in Early India. A Study in Attitudes towards Outsiders up to AD 600 (New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1991), p. 287.

25 Basham, op. cit., p.

3 The Early Urban Period

1 P. Olivelle, Tr., Samnayasa Upanisads (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), pp. 29-32, citing A. Ghosh, The City in Early Historical India (Simla: Indian Institute of Advanced Study, 1973) and R. Gombrich, Theravdda Buddhism (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1988).

2 Cited by R. S. Sharma, Material Culture and Social Formations in Ancient India (Delhi: Macmillan, 1983), p. 76.

3 That the term bandhu, “connections” or secret doctrine, is the core meaning of the term Upanisad is the conclusion of Patrick Olivelle, following Renou (Louis Renou, “Connexion et Vedique, ‘cause’ en Bouddhique” in Dr. C. Kunhan Raja, Presentation Volume (Madras: Adyar Library, 1946), Falk (H. Falk, “Vedisch Upanisad” in Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morganldndischen Gesselschaft. Vol. 136 (1986), pp. 80-97), Jaroslav Vacek, and others. This connotation has come to replace an earlier notion posited by Deutsch and others that Upanisad had to do with “sitting at the feet of perfection” (P. Olivelle, Tr., The Upanisads (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), p. 1iii.

4 Olivelle, 1996, pp. xxxix, 41.

5 Ibid.: 1.

6 Ibid.: xxix.

7 Patrick Olivelle, 1998. The Upanisads (Oxford World’s Classics reissue of 1996 edn), translating Chdndogya Upanisad VI. 14. 11-13, pp. 154-55. Reprinted by permission of Oxford University Press.

8 Ibid.: 274, Olivelle translating Mundaka Upanisad, 3.1. 1, 2. Reprinted by permission of Oxford University Press.

9 Ibid.: 155, Olivelle translating Chandogya Upanisad, VI.14. 14. Reprinted by permission of Oxford University Press.

10 Richard J. Cohen in conversation.

11 Padmanabha Jaini, The Jaina Path of Purification (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979), p. 37. Prof.Jaini suggests the numbers offered in the Jaini texts are gross exaggerations; namely, 14,000 monks; 36,000 nuns; 159,000 laymen, and 318,000 laywomen.

12 Richard J. Cohen in conversation. Cohen suggests the contemporary term “sheth,” generally referring to bankers and sometimes associated with lay Jains may have derived from this early designation of the “perfect one” (srestin).

13 Padmanabha Jaini in conversation.

14 This summation is found in Ainslie Embree, ed., Sources of Indian Tradition, Vol. I (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), pp. 76-78.

15 Romila Thapar, Ancient Indian Social History. Some Interpretations (New Delhi: Orient Longman, 1978), p. 64.

16 C. A. F. Rhys Davids and K. R. Norman, Trs., eds, Poems of Early Buddhist Nuns (Oxford: Pali Text Society, 1989), pp. 88-91.

17 Ainslie Embree, op. cit., p. 108, citing V. Trenckner, ed., Milindapanha (London: Williams and Norgate, 1880), p. 715.

18 The previous discussion is condensed from that in R. H. Robinson and W. Y. Johnson, The Buddhist Religion (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1996), pp. 58ff.

19 Romila Thapar, A History of India (Baltimore: Penguin, 1966), p. 66.

20 T. O. Ling, A Dictionary of Buddhism (New York: Charles Scribners, 1972), p. 213 citing the report of a Chinese pilgrim, Hsuan Tsang, in the seventh century CE.

4 The Urban Period

1 N. Q. Pankal, State and Religion in Ancient India (Allahabad: Chugh Publications, 1983), p. 103.

2 Romila Thapar, A History of India. I (London: Penguin Books, 1966), pp. 59 et al.

3 A. L. Basham, The Wonder that was India (New York: Grove Press, 1959), p. 60. Basham’s book remains a classic for its discussion of this period.

4 Ibid.: 87.

5 Fred W. Clothey, The Many Faces of Murukan (The Hague: Mouton, 1978), pp. 57ff.

6 Doris Srinivasan, “Vaisnava Art and Iconography at Mathura” in D. M. Srinivasan, ed., Mathura: The Cultural Heritage (Delhi: American Institute of Indian Studies, 1989), pp. 388ff., et al.

7 Alf Hiltebeitel, “Krsna at Mathura” in Srinivasan, ed., op. cit., p. 98. See also Hiltebeitel’s “Krsna in the Mahabharata. A Bibliographical Study” in Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. Vol. LXI (1979), pp. 65-107.

8 Clothey, 1978, pp. 160ff.

9 Arthur Anthony Macdonnell, A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary (London: Oxford University Press, 1969).

10 Percy Brown, Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods) (Bombay: D.

11 Ibid.: plate XVIII.

For fuller discussion of these rites of passage, see R. Pandey, Hindu Samskaras (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1969).

See the discussion, for example, by Vasudha Narayanan in “The Hindu Tradition” in W. Oxtoby, ed., World Religions: Eastern Religions (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 94-104.

Ibid.: 98.

Ibid.

Basham, op. cit., p. 166.

Ibid.: 167.

Ibid.: 168.

Clothey, op. cit., p. 35.

Thapar, op. cit., p. 152.

George Kliger, ed., “Bharata Natyam: History, Cultural Heritage and Current Practice” in G. Kliger, ed., Bharata Natyam in Cultural Perspective (New Delhi: Manohar, 1993), p. 5.

David Kopf, “Dancing ‘Virgin,’ Sexual Slave, Divine Courtesan in Celestial Dances: In Search of the Historic Devadasl” in Kliger, ed., 1993, p. 172.

Ibid.: 172.

Kliger, op. cit., p. 5.

Kopf, op. cit., p. 172.

Satapatha Brdhmana 6.6.3.11, as cited and translated in W. Doniger and B. Smith, Trs. The Laws of Manu (London: Penguin Books, 1991), p. xxvi.

Narayanan, 2001, pp. 84ff.

For more extended discussion of yoga, see M. Eliade, Yoga: Immortality and Freedom (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1973).

See Robert Goldman, general ed., The Ramayana of Valmiki: An Epic of Ancient India (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984) for an introduction and translation of the epic.

A. K. Ramanujan, “Three Hundred Ramayanas" (paper delivered at a conference in February, 1987), pp. 14ff. This paper was eventually published in Paula Richman, ed., Many Ramayanas: The Diversity of a Narrative Tradition South Asia (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1991).

Ramanujan, 1987, p. 19.

Basham, op. cit., p. 417.

Cited by Thomas Coburn, Encountering the Goddess (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1991), p. 17.

Adya Rangacarya, Tr., Ndtyasdstra (Bangalore: Ibh Prakashara, nd.), chapter VII. Basham, op. cit., p. 417.

Ibid.

Ibid.: 385.

Ibid. 383.

Rangacarya, op. cit., p. xi.

P. V. Kane, History of the Dharmasdstras. Vol. V. (Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 1930-62), p. 186. Kane speculated that this practice had started by at least the fourth century CE.

Basham, op. cit., p. 336; Kane, op. cit., p. 165.

Derek O. Codrick, “Buffalo” in Margaret A. Mills, Peter Claus, and Sarah Diamond, eds, South Asian Folklore: An Encyclopedia (New York and London: Routledge, 2003), p. 85.

Vasudha Narayanan, “Navardtri”” in Mills et al., op. cit., p. 443.

44 Kane, op. cit., pp. 164-65, citing the Kalikapurancis references to these practices.

45 Basham, op. cit., p. 316.

46 Clothey, op. cit., p. 34.

47 Basham, op. cit., p. 319.

48 Ibid.

49 Clothey, op. cit., p. 52.

50 See descriptions in the early Tamil literature as cited by Clothey, op. cit., pp. 26f.

51 John D. Smith, “Mahabharata” in Mills, et al., op. cit., p. 366.

52 Alf Hiltebeitel, “Draupadi” in Mills et al., p. 166.

53 Basham, op. cit., p. 264.

54 R. Robinson and W.Johnson, The Buddhist R.el/g/on (Belmont, CA: Dickenson Publishing Co., 1977), p. 83.

55 Ibid.: 95.

56 These are the dates suggested by Aloka Parasher Sen, pp. 289-90.

5 The Post-classical Period

1 For fuller description of the period, see A. K. Ramanujan, The Interior Landscape (Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1969).

2 Ibid.: “Afterword”.

3 Burton Stein, Peasant State and Society in Medieval South India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1980), pp. 83ff.

4 A. K. Ramanujan, Hymns for the Drowning (New York: Penguin Books, 1993), p. 108, translating Nammalvar 7.4.1. Ramanujan offers a useful discussion of the bhakti experience.

5 Ramanujan, 1993, p. 117.

6 Ramanujan, 1993, p. 169, translating Nammalvar 7.9.1.

7 Ramanujan, 1993, pp. 118-19, translating Tiruvdcakam IV. 59-70.

8 Arjun Appadurai, “Kings, Sects and Temples in South India, 1350-1700 AD” in B. Stein, ed., South Indian Temples (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1978), pp. 52ff.

9 Paul Younger, The Home of Dancing Sivan (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 74.

10 Ibid.: 181.

11 For further discussion of these tad lapuradnas, see David Shulman, Tamil Temple Myths: Sacrifice and Divine Marriage in the South Indian Saiva Tradition (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980).

12 R. Nagaraj of the Folk Studies Center of the University of Hyderabad in conversation.

13 Shulman, 1980, pp. 158ff.

14 A. K. Ramanujan, Speaking of Siva (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1973).

15 A. L. Basham, The Wonder that was India (New York: Grove Press), p. 314.

16 Based on conversations with several scholars of Kerala’s history.

17 For fuller discussion of the history of Sasta, see F. W. Clothey, “Sasta-Aiyanar- Aiyyappan” in Clothey, ed., Images of Man (Madras: New Era Publications, 1982), pp. 34-71.

18 For further discussion, see V. A. Devasenapati, Of Human Bondage and Divine Grace (Annamalai: Annamalai University Press, 1963).

19 For a succinct summation of Advaitin thought, see Karl Potter, Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies. Vol. III. Advaita Vedanta up to Samkara and His Pupils (New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1981), pp. 6-7.

20 Ibid.: 103.

21 Ramanuja’s thought is explored more deeply in J. Carman, The Theology of Ramanujan (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1974).

22 Basham, op. cit., pp. 162-63.

23 Romila Thapar, A History of India. I (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1966), p. 142.

24 Ibid.: 253ff.

25 Herman Kulke, Kings and Cults: State Formations and Legitimation in India and Southeast Asia (Delhi: Manohar, 1993), pp. 93ff.

26 Wayne Begley, “Hindu Temple” in Joe Elder, ed., Lectures in Indian Civilization (Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt Publishing, 1970), p. 120.

27 Aloka Parasher Sen in conversation.

28 Klaus Klostermaier, in A Survey of Hinduism (Albany: SUNY Press, 1994), pp. 285-86, summarizes this complex system.

29 Romila Thapar, Ancient Indian Social History: Some Interpretations (New Delhi: Orient Longman, 1978), p. 77.

30 This is the suggestion of David Kinsley in The Sword and the Flute: Kali and Krsna: Dark Visions of the Terrible and Sublime in Hindu Mythology (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975).

31 See Thomas Coburn, Devimahdtmya,: The Crystallization of the Goddess Tradition (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1984).

32 These are Norvin Hein’s speculations in “Comments: Radha and Erotic Community” in J. Hawley and D. Wulff, eds, The Divine Consort: Radha and the Goddesses of India (Boston: Beacon Press, 1986), p. 121.

33 For fuller discussion of the Radha story see Hawley and Wulff, op. cit.

34 There is an extended literature on Kali as well as Durga. The reader may want to refer first to David Kinsley, Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Feminine in the Hindu Tradition (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986).

35 Padmanabha Jaini, “The Disappearance of Buddhism and the Survival of Jainism in India: A Contrast” in A. K. Narain, ed., Studies in the History of Buddhism (Delhi: B.R. Pub. Corp, 1980) p. 87, citing M. Govinda Pai “Dharmasthalada Siva-lingakke Manjundtha emba lesara nege bantu?" in Samarpane, Felicitation Volume in Honour of Shri Manjayya Heggade (Mangalore, 1950), pp. 65-77.

36 Jaini, op. cit., p. 86.

37 Ibid.: 84.

38 Ibid.: 85.

39 Ibid.: 90, n. 20.

6 The Coming of Islam

1 For a thorough discussion of the origins and development of Islam, see John L. Esposito, Islami: The Straight Path (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); and Frederick M. Denny, An Introduction to Islam (New York: Macmillan, 1994).

2 Esposito, op. cit., p. 109.

3 See Romila Thapar, A History of India. I (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1966), pp. 229-34 for description of MahmUd’s campaigns.

4 Juan Campo in conversation.

5 Cited by Sheldon Pollock “Ramayana and Political Imagination in India” in The Journal of Asian Studies. Vol. 52 No.2 (May, 1993), p. 286.

6 Thapar, op. cit., p. 238.

7 Ibid.: 274.

8 R. L. Hangloo in conversation.

9 Thapar, op. cit., p. 282.

10 Robert E. Frykenberg, “Administrative System in Muslim India” inJoe Elder, ed., Lectures in Indian Civilization (Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co., 1970), p. 138.

11 For a description of the Mughal period, see, for example, Stanley Wolpert, A New History of India (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), chapters 9-12.

12 Frykenberg, op. cit., p. 138.

13 Esposito, op. cit., pp. 73-74.

14 Ibid.: 46.

15 For discussion of the Ahmadiyah movement, see Spencer Lavan, The Ahmadiyah Movement: A History and Perspectives (Delhi: Manohar, 1974).

16 John A. Williams, “Islamic Doctrine, Thought, Law” in Elder, op. cit., p. 132.

17 Esposito, op. cit., pp. 47-48.

18 Saiyid Athar Abbas Rizvi, A History of Sufism in India (New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 1986). Rizvi’s two-volume work is an excellent treatment of Sufism in India.

19 Ibid.: 32ff.

20 See, for example, R. L. Hangloo, “Sufism in Medieval Deccan: Politics and Worship.” Presidential address for Andhra Pradesh History Congress (January, 2000).

21 R. L. Hangloo in conversation.

22 R. L. Hangloo, lecture (August, 1999).

23 Rizvi, op. cit., pp. 322ff.

7 Developments in the Late Medieval Period

1 Sheldon Pollock, “Ramayana and Political Imagination in India” The Journal of Asian Studies. Vol. 52 No. 2 (May 1993), p. 286.

2 See Burton Stein, Peasant State and Society in Medieval South India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1980), pp. 266ff. for fuller discussion of the Vijayanagara dynasty.

3 A. K. Warder, “Classical Literature” in A. L. Basham, ed., The Cultural History of India (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975), p. 194.

4 Stein, op. cit., pp. 366ff.

5 For fuller discussion of the Marathas, see Stanley Wolpert, A New History of India (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 170ff.

6 Yeshi Sel, “Problems in Recapturing Mirabai.” Unpublished M.Phil. thesis. University of Hyderabad, History Department, 1996, p. 43.

7 Robert E. Frykenberg, “Administrative System in Muslim India” in Joe Elder, ed., Lectures in Indian Civilization (Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Flint Publishing Co., 1970), p. 138.

Pollock, op. cit., pp. 276-77.

Sanjay Subrahmanyam, “Before the Leviathan: Sectarian Violence and the State in Pre-Colonial India” in K. Basa and Subrahmanyam, Unravelling the Nation: Sectarian Conflict and India’s Secular Identity (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1996), pp. 52-53.

Ibid.: 62-64.

R. L. Hangloo, “Accepting Islam and Abandoning Hinduism: A Study of Proselytization Process in Medieval Kashmir” in Islamic Culture. Vol. LXXXI No. 1 (January, 1997), pp. 94-95.

Subrahmanyan, op. cit., p. 51.

R. L. Hangloo, “Islam and the Cult of Bhakti” in Yusuf Husain, ed., Glimpses of Medieval Indian Culture (Bombay: Asia Publishing House, nd.), pp. 1-27.

J. T. F. Jordens, “Medieval Hindu Devotionalism” in A. L. Basham, 1975, p.26. Ibid.: 265.

This was the observation of an anonymous reviewer of an earlier draft of this manuscript; however, Jordens, op. cit., p. 368, suggested Jnanesvara was the one who used the “form meant for kirtan chanting.”

Jordens, op. cit., p. 269.

See Eleanor Zelliott “Medieval Encounters between Hindu and Muslim: Eknath’s Drama-Poem Hindu-Turk Samvad” in F. W. Clothey, ed., Images of Man: Religion and Historical Process in South Asia (Madras: New Era Publications, 1982), pp. 171-95.

Jordens, op. cit., p. 270.

I am indebted to Jeff Brackett in conversation for this interpretation of Ramdas. J. Brackett in conversation.

See C. Mackenzie Brown, “The Theology of Radha in the Puranas” in J. Hawley and D. Wulff, The Divine Consort (Boston: Beacon Press, 1986), pp. 57ff. Jordens, op. cit., p. 271.

Ibid.: 272.

Ibid.: 272-73.

Krishna Kripalani, “Medieval Indian Literature” in A. L. Basham, 1975, p. 306. These “Hindi” poet-saints are treated more extensively in J. Hawley and M. Juergensmeyer, Songs of the Saints of India (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988).

Jordens, op. cit., p. 274.

Hawley and Juergensmeyer, translating Kabingranthavali, 174 and 191. Songs of the Saints of India (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988).

Jordens, op. cit., p. 275.

Hawley and Juergensmeyer, op. cit., translating Surdasji Ka, 368.

Hawley and Juergensmeyer, op. cit., pp. 16f.

Jordens, op. cit., pp. 276f.

Hawley and Juergensmeyer, op. cit., pp. 120ff.

See Fred W. Clothey, Quiescence and Passion: the Vision of Arunakiri, Tamil Mystic (Bethesda, MD: Austin and Winfield, 1996).

Kripalani, op. cit., p. 306.

Ibid.

Ibid.: 307.

38 Frykenberg, op. cit., p. 138.

39 See N. Jairazbhoy, “Music” in A.L. Basham, 1975, pp. 221-22.

40 I am indebted to Prof. R. L. Hangloo, Dept. of History of the University of Hyderabad and especially to his article, cited above (1997), pp. 91-111, for this discussion. A version of this article was eventually published as chapter two in his volume The State in Medieval Kashmir (New Delhi: Manohar, 2000).

41 Hangloo, 1997, p. 50.

42 Hawley and Juergensmeyer, op. cit., pp. 70ff.

43 As translated by McLeod and cited by Ainslee T. Embree, Sources of Indian Tradition. Vol. 1. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), p. 505.

44 For extended discussion of the history of Sikhism, see Kushwant Singh, A History of the Sikhs. Two volumes (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1977).

45 Ibid.: 54.

46 Ibid.: 60.

47 Ibid.: 83ff.

48 Ibid.: 168ff.

49 Ibid.: 49.

8 Streams from the "West" and their Aftermath

1 Romila Thapar, A History of India. I (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1966), pp. 102ff.

2 This and subsequent discussion of “CochinJews” is derived in large measure from that of F. Thurston, Castes and Tribes of Southern India. Vol. II (Delhi: Asian Educational Services, 1993), pp. 460-88.

3 Adam Shear in conversation.

4 Thurston, op. cit., p. 484.

5 These observations are the result of conversations with the author by members of the Bene Israel community.

6 This and subsequent discussion of Syrian Christians is derived from Julius Richter, A History of Missions in India (New York: Fleming H. Revell, 1908), pp. 33ff. and from Thurston, op. cit., VI, pp. 408ff.

7 Thurston, op. cit., pp. 415ff.

8 Ibid.: 427.

9 Mary Boyce, Zoroastrians, their Religious Beliefs and Practices (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979), p. 11. I am indebted to Boyce’s book for much of this discussion on Zoroastrianism.

10 Ibid.: 166.

11 Much of this discussion on Parsis in Mumbai is derived from A Guide to the Zoroastrian Religion: A Nineteenth Century Catechism with Modern Commentary. Eds and Trs. by F. M. Katwal and J. W. Boyd (Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1982), pp. xi-xiv.

12 On the Portuguese in India, see, for example, J. B. Harrison, “The Portuguese” in A. L. Basham, ed., A Cultural History of India (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975), pp. 337-47.

13 See Bror Tiliander, Christian and Hindu Terminology: A Study of their Mutual Relations with Special Reference to the Tamil Area (Uppsala: Almquist and Wiksell Tryckeri, 1974).

See V. A. Cronin, A Pearl to India: the Life of Robert de Nobili (London: Darton, Longman and Todd, 1966).

Richter, op. cit., pp. 52-54.

Stanley Wolpert, A New History of India (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 175f.

See E. Arno Lehman, It Began at Tranquebar, Tr. S. G. Lang and H. W. Gensicher (Madras: Christian Literature Society, 1956).

For fuller discussion of the British period in India, see Percival Spear, A History of India. II (London: Penguin Books, 1990) or Stanley Wolpert, op. cit., pp. 187-249.

Wolpert, op. cit., p. 188.

Ibid.: 193.

Anil Seal, “Europe’s Changing View of India” in Joseph Elder, ed., Lectures in Indian Civilization (Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co., 1970), p. 154. This is summarized from Wolpert, op. cit., pp. 168ff.

W. Theodore Dubary et al., eds, Sources of Indian Tradition (New York: Columbia University Press, 1966), pp. 565f.

For extended discussion of the Indian intellectual climate in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, see Stephen N. Hay, Sources of Indian Tradition. Vol. II (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988).

Hay, 1988, pp. 44-51.

Hay, 1988, pp. 52-61.

Hay, 1988, pp. 87-96.

Hay, 1988, pp. 102-12.

Hay, 1988, pp. 113-19.

Hay, 1988, p. 140.

Wolpert, op. cit., p. 260.

Hay, 1988, pp. 130-39.

Hay, 1988, pp. 62-71.

Hay, 1988, pp. 72-83.

Madhu Wangu, A Goddess is Born: the Emergence of Khir Bhavani in Kashmir (Wexford, PA: Stark Publishers, 2002), p. 208.

Jason Fuller in conversation.

From a story told the author by an anonymous villager.

See Stephen N. Hay, “Muslim Intelligentsia in the 18th and 19th Centuries” in Joseph W. Elder, op. cit., pp. 206-07.

Hay, 1970, p. 206.

Hay, 1988, pp. 180-94.

Hay, 1970, pp. 206-07.

Spencer Lavan, The Ahmadiyah Movement: A History and Perspectives (Delhi: Manohar, 1974), pp. 35ff.

This discussion is derived from Jan Platvoet, “Ritual as Confrontation: The Ayodhya Conflict” in Jan Platvoet and Karel van der Toork, eds, Pluralism and Identity: Studies in Ritual Behavior (Leider: E. J. Brill, 1995), pp. 196-200.

Hay, 1988, p. 175.

Ibid.: 195-200.

Ibid.: 205-21.

This discussion is derived largely from Vijaya Gupchup, Bombay, Social Change 1793-1857 (Bombay: Manmohan Bhatkal, 1993), pp. 122ff.

48 Richard Fox Young, Resistant Hinduism (Vienna: E. J. Brill, 1981), pp. 25ff.

49 Ibid.: 49ff.

50 S. J. Samartha, The Hindu Response to the Unbound Christ (Madras: Christian Literature Society, 1974), pp. 128ff.

51 Geoff Oddie, “Anti-Missionary Feeling and Hindu Revivalism in Madras. The Hindu Preaching and Tract Societies, c. 1886-1891” in F. W. Clothey, ed., Images of Man: Religion and Historical Process in South Asia (Madras: New Era Publications, 1982), pp. 217ff.

52 Samartha, op. cit., pp. 49ff.

53 There are many books on Gandhi, but a concise summary of his life and work can be found in Hay, 1988, pp. 248-74.

54 These are Hay’s terms, 1988, p. 227.

55 Hay, 1988, p. 227, citing Tagore’s Gitanjali, translation in A. Chakravarty, A Tagore Reader (Boston: Beacon Press, 1961), p. 300.

56 Hay, 1988, p. 155, citing Aurobindo, Letters on Yoga, in Sri Aurobindo Birth Centenary Library. Vol. 24, p. 57.

57 Once again, Hay, 1988, pp. 288-95, provides a succinct discussion of Savarkar’s life and works. I am indebted to Hay’s reader for these brief encapsulations.

9 Religion in Contemporary India

1 Stephen N. Hay, ed., Sources of Indian Tradition. Vol. 2 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), pp. 380ff.

2 These statistics are drawn from Stanley Wolpert, A New History of India (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 351ff., as is much of this discussion on independent India’s early years.

3 Ibid.: 368.

4 F. Nietzsche, The Birth of Tragedy (New York: Gordon Press, 1974).

5 R. Bellah, Beyond Belief (New York: Harper & Row, 1970), pp. 64ff.

6 S. N. Bhardwaj, Hindu Places of Pilgrimage in India (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983), pp. 97ff.

7 For much of this discussion, I am indebted to L. P. Vidyarthi (with M. Jha and B. N. Saraswati) The Sacred Complex of Kashi (Delhi: Concept Publishing Co., 1979). See also D. Eck, Banares: City of Light (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998).

8 Ibid.: 39.

9 Ibid.: 319.

10 This discussion is based on the author’s own research. See especially Clothey, Rhythm and Intent (Madras: Blackie and Son, 1982), pp. 20ff.

11 This discussion is based on the author’s own research. For added details see especially Clothey, “Sasta-Aiyanar-Ayyapan: The God as Prism of Social History” in Clothey, ed., Images of Man: Religion and Historical Process in South Asia (Madras: New Era Publications, 1982), pp. 34ff.

12 This discussion is based on the author’s own research and from conversations with R. Nagarajan and A. Anand of the Centre for Folk Culture Studies at the University of Hyderabad.

13 Padmanabha Jaini, The Jaina Path of Purification (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979), pp. 193-94, 203ff.

14 C. Humphrey, and J. Laidlaw, The Archetypal Actions of Ritual (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994), p. 43.

15 This summary is based on conversations held in Mumbai in the summer of 1990.

16 This is a condensation of a myth with many variations found amongst folk communities of Andhra Pradesh.

17 Again, there are many variations to this myth. Its intention, nonetheless, includes the idea that a non-brahman “goddess” has been given a “brahman” head.

18 The Hindu (June 30, 2001), p. 3.

19 Edgar Thurston, Castes and Tribes of Southern India. Vol. VI (New Delhi: Asian Educational Service, 1993), pp. 363ff.

20 The story of the Mahars and of Ambedkar can be found in many sources. Stephen Hay, 1988, pp. 324ff. offers a brief synopsis of Ambedkar’s life and thought. Ambedkar’s The Buddha and His Dhamma (Bombay: Siddharth Publication, 1984) is a useful introduction to Ambedkar’s thought.

21 This brief summary is derived from Alan Babb’s excellent discussion in Babb, Redemptive Encounters (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1987), pp. 93-155.

22 Again, this summary of Satya Sai Baba’s life and movement is drawn from Babb op. cit., pp. 158-201.

23 Hay, 1988, p. 53.

24 J. Platvoet, “Ritual as Confrontation: The Ayodhya Conflict” in J. Platvoet and Karel van der Toork, Pluralism and Identity: Studies in Ritual Behaviour (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1995), p. 197. Much of this and subsequent discussion is derived from Platvoet’s excellent and scholarly summation of Hindu-Muslim conflicts over the last century. A number of other studies have addressed these issues, perhaps, most importantly, P. van der Veer, Gods on Earth: The Management of Religious Experience and Identity in a North Indian Pilgrimage Center (London: The Athlone Press, 1988), and other essays.

25 Platvoet, op. cit., p. 188, fn. 9.

26 Ibid.: 188.

27 Hay, 1988, pp. 359ff.

28 Platvoet, op. cit., p. 202.

10 India's Global Reach

1 For fuller discussions of Buddhism in China, see Robinson andJohnson, The Buddhist Religion (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1996); and Ch’en, Buddhism in China (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972).

2 For discussion of Buddhism in Tibet see Robinson and Johnson, op. cit.; and Stephen V. Beyer, The Cult of Tara (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973).

3 For discussion of Indian influences in Southeast Asia see Robinson and

Johnson, op. cit.; A. L. Basham, ed., The Cultural History of India (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975), pp. 442-54; Clothey and Long, eds, Experiencing ‘Siva’ (Delhi: Manohar, 1982), pp. 81-86, 189-202; George Coedès, The Indianized States of Southeast Asia (Honolulu: East-West Center Press, 1968); and Eleanor Mannikka, Angkor Wat, Time, Space, and Kingship (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1996).

Michael Aung-Thwin, Pagan: The Origins of Modern Burma (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1985), p. 34.

Mannikka, op. cit., pp. 24-25.

Jean Filliozat, “The Role of the Saivagamas in the Saiva Ritual System” in F. W. Clothey and J. B. Long, eds, Experiencing Siva (Delhi: Manohar Books, 1983), pp. 81-86.

Paul Wheatley, The City as Symbol (London: H. K. Lewis, 1969), p. 32, fn. 34.

Frank Heidemann, Kanganies in Sri Lanka and Malaysia (München: Anacon, 1992), pp. 110ff.

Colin Clarke, Ceri Peach, and Steven Vertovec, “Introduction: Themes in the Study of the Indian Diaspora” in Clarke, Peach, Vertovec, eds, South Asians Overseas: Migration and Ethnicity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 8.

Sucked Oranges: The Indian Poor in Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur: lusan, 1989), pp. 2-20.

This description is based on the author’s own research and on studies by E. F. Collins, Pierced by Murukan’s Lance (DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 1997).

Much of the following discussion of contacts in classical times is derived from H. A. Rawlinson, “Early Contacts Between India and Europe” in A. L. Basham, ed., The Cultural History of India (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975), pp. 425-43. Ibid.: 426.

Ibid.: 429.

Ibid.: 435-36.

Ibid.: 436.

Much of the following is condensed from F. Wilhelm and H. G. Rawlinson, “India and the Modern West” in Basham, 1975, pp. 470-86.

Ibid.: 470.

Ibid.: 471-72.

Ibid.: 473.

Ibid.: 474.

Ibid.: 473.

Guy Welbon, The Buddhist Nirvana and its Western Interpreters (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968).

Milton Singer, When a Great Tradition Modernizes (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1972), pp. 23-24.

P. Trout, Eastern Seeds, Western Soil: Three Gurus in America (Mountain View, CA: Mayfield, 2001), pp. 62-63.

Ibid.: 64.

Ibid.: 62-63.

This discussion is derived from Trout, op. cit., pp. 109-46.

This discussion is derived from Trout, op. cit., pp. 147-76.

See Robert Ellwood’s Religious and Spiritual Groups in Modern America (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1973 and 1988).

For further discussion of the experience of these early migrants in the northwest, see Roger Daniels, Indian Immigration to the United States (New York: The Asia Society, 1989), pp. 7-25.

Raymond Williams, Religions of Immigrants from India and Pakistan (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 71-72.

33 Sunil Khilkani, “Who are you calling Asian?” The Sunday Times, London, April 29, 2001 and The Hindu, July 1, 2001.

34 M. Baumann, “The Hindu Diasporas in Europe and an Analysis of Key Diasporic Patterns” in T. S. Rukmani, ed., Hindu Diaspora: Global Perspectives (Montreal: Concordia University, 1999), p. 62, citing K. Knott, Hinduism in Leeds: A Study of Religious Practices in the Indian Hindu Communities and in Hindu-Related Groups (Leeds: Community Related Projects, 1986).

35 Baumann, op. cit., p. 63.

36 Ibid.: 64.

37 Ibid.: 65.

38 Ibid.: 66.

39 From a study conducted by the author in 1978 and funded by the Pennsylvania Council for the Humanities.

40 See Clothey, Rhythm and Intent (Madras: Blackie and Son, 1982), pp. 175-76.

41 Ibid.: 175.

42 For a fuller discussion of the development of this temple, see Clothey, 1982, pp. 164-200.