The Zoroastrian Community: Social and Ethical Responsibilities

At the outset of this section on the Zoroastrian way of life, we noted the relatively tightly knit sense of community and practice of traditional customs that continue to characterize the tradition.

Ethical responsibilities have always been a central feature of Zoroastrian life. Traditionally, even such daily activities as eating food have been regulated by prescribed rituals, for example, by the religious requirements to maintain purity. Zoroastrian texts from ancient times have spelled out specific ethical requirements. The early medieval text Ar da Viraz Namag (The Book of the Righteous Viraz) is one notable example. Similar to Dante’s Divine Comedy (and, in fact, this book was one of Dante’s influences), the Ar da Viraz Namag recounts a seven-day journey of the righteous Viraz through the afterlife, where he encounters the spirits of Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu and many instances of souls of the righteous enjoying heavenly rewards and souls of the evil suffering horrible torments in hell. In each instance, the specific virtue or vice is identified. The book strongly condemns such vices as lying, the breaking of contracts, greediness, and cruelty to animals—for example, beasts of burden must not be overworked; when animals are slaughtered, they must first be stunned; and young animals cannot be killed at all.

Concerns regarding ethical responsibility and social justice have, then, been featured components of Zoroastrianism for many centuries. And yet texts have also emphasized social hierarchies and obedience toward one’s superiors, including that of women toward men. Accumulation of personal wealth, naturally resulting in situations of economic disparity, has been condoned, although dishonest means of gaining wealth have been condemned.

Today, although general ethical norms such as admonition against vices such as lying still guide behavior, many of the traditional rules and regulations tend to be overlooked. With regard to the once prevalent purification rituals—some of which are still very much in effect—a newfound emphasis on personal hygiene has become the equivalent of the older insistence on “purity.” And rather than focusing on traditional lists of virtues and vices, a more basic ethical outlook has taken hold, based on the “motto” of the Zoroastrian religion: “good thoughts, good words, good deeds.” Good deeds include supporting the poor and significant charitable efforts on the part of those who can afford such, including the establishment of schools and libraries. Along with aspiring to base their lives on these ideals, some Zoroastrians strive to practice confession of sins on a daily basis, mostly as a means of improving upon their moral behavior.

Gender Roles

The prevalent doctrine of dualism is reflected in Zoroastrianism’s traditional tendency to maintain distinctive roles for men and women. Recently, there has been a general trend toward egalitarianism, but premodem texts tend to portray women that invoke images of chaos rather than order, which, the texts assert, is a relatively stronger characteristic in men.

This highly patriarchal perspective is apparent in texts such as the Arda Viraz Namag, which clearly asserts that women are to be subordinate to men. Even a woman who is virtuous in every other way but who has not been obedient to her husband is said to have no chance of crossing the Chinvat Bridge and proceeding to heaven.

Special ethical norms and ritual practices apply to women, many of them stemming from Zoroastrianism’s stance on menstruation as being polluting. The Avesta, for example, sets forth rules governing the conduct of a menstruating woman, including the need for them to stay at least fifteen steps away from water, fire, religious implements, and men. At the end of her period, the woman is to be cleansed with bull’s urine, which was used as a disinfectant in ancient times.

In the modern period, such rules as these have become largely obsolete. Most Zoroastrians today support a general attitude of egalitarianism, even if some limits are still imposed because of ritual regulations and other traditional aspects. The rationale for this attitude is not necessarily a modem invention. Although, as we have observed, premodern texts tend to present a strongly patriarchal perspective, the Gathas address women and men together, suggesting a type of equality in the time of Zarathushtra. As we have observed, girls undergo the investiture ceremony and become full members of the Zoroastrian community, thereafter wearing the kusti cord and partaking in the kusti ritual and daily prayers. Women have equal right of access to temples—unless they are menstruating, in which case still today they are not permitted to enter. In recent times, a category of rituals that can only be performed by women has become popular. Called sofreh rituals, after the cloth (sofreh) on which Iranian meals traditionally have been served, they involve the consumption of special foods and drinks.

One notable sign of women lagging behind men in terms of participation involves positions of leadership. Women hold fewer seats than men on committees in Zoroastrian organizations, regardless of the location. Among the Parsis of India, women are not allowed to become priests. The degree to which Zoroastrianism will become fully egalitarian obviously remains to be seen.

Zoroastrianism and the Environment

Zoroastrians believe their religion teaches sound environmental principles that reach back to the prophet Zarathushtra himself. In fact, some claim that Zoroastrianism is the world’s first “green religion.” According to the Zoroastrian scriptures, nature consists of Ahura Mazda’s Seven Bounteous Creations: sky, water, earth, plants, animals, fire, and humanity. Under the influence of evil, these have been corrupted. As Ahura Mazda’s partners in the work of restoring all things to their original perfection, it is the responsibility of human beings to serve nature as well as its creator. In caring for the natural world, Zoroastrians believe they are acting in accordance with Asha, the principle of cosmic order that pervades all of reality. They make the cleanliness of their bodies and their surroundings a priority and strive to maintain the purity of the land and water on which they and all others depend. In doing so, they hope to enjoy the benefits of good health, plentiful food, and other material rewards as well as the spiritual blessings that accrue from living in harmony with the will of Ahura Mazda.

Zoroastrian Centre in London. With 5,000 Zoroastrians, the United Kingdom is one of several countries across the world with sizable communities.

Countries with significant Zoroastrian populations (all figures are approximate, as estimates vary widely).

These ancient principles remain at the heart of contemporary Zoroastrian thought. Representatives of Zoroastrianism at the 2015 Parliament of the World’s Religions set forth these essential features of contemporary Zoroastrian teaching about the environment: The natural world is sacred because it is God’s creation. God has made humanity stewards of the natural world. As such, human beings are responsible for its protection and preservation. The present state of the environment cannot be improved until there is an increased awareness among human beings of their responsibility for the environment. Zoroastrians must work with others to bring about this necessary “change in the consciousness of individuals.”

Self-Assessment 10.3

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Zoroastrianism in the Twenty-First Century

A 2012 study sponsored by the Federation of Zoroastrian Associations of North America (FEZANA) places the world population of Zoroastrians at just over 111,000, while other worthy sources suggest closer to 200,000.- It is reasonable, therefore, to estimate the current number of Zorastrians as somewhere within this rather broad range. The most significant populations are indicated in the map, Countries with significant Zoroastrian populations (p, 376)· Much smaller populations are found various other countries. Overall, the FEZANA study reports a decline of just over 11 percent in the number of Zoroastrians worldwide between 2004 and 2012.

The largest community of Zoroastrians today is in western India, particularly in the area of Mumbai. Known as Parsis, they are the descendants of Zoroastrians who fled Iran to escape Muslim persecution in the early medieval period. Today, they are among the most affluent of India’s ethnic groups and are highly regarded for their success as industrialists and their generosity as philanthropists.

The second largest group of contemporary Zoroastrians is in Iran.

Perhaps the greatest concern of Zoroastrians today is their dwindling numbers. One reason for this decline is that Zoroastrians do not seek converts to their religion. Another, mentioned in the opening to this chapter, is an ancient tradition that forbids marriage to non-Zoroastrians. In addition, some Zoroastrians choose to leave their religion because they find its strictures burdensome or its ancient teachings difficult to accept.

Because of the decline in their numbers, Zoroastrians are concerned about the future of their religion. Conservatives argue that adherence to tradition is the key to its survival. Liberal Zoroastrians remind conservatives that Zarathushtra himself was a reformer who broke with tradition. They find the essence of their religion in the Gathas, the Avestan hymns said to have been composed by Zarathushtra, and they have less interest in the beliefs, doctrines, laws, and rituals that became a part of tradition after him and tend toward exclusivity.

¹ Roshan Rivetna, “The Zarathushti World—A Demographic Picture,” September 29, 2020, www.fezana.org., and

Pew Research Center: Religion & Public Life, citing World Religion Database, September 29, 2020, https: //www.pewforum.org/2o15/o4/o2/other-religions/.

For Zoroastrians today, their motto “good thoughts, good words, good deeds” is much more than just a catchy slogan. Etched into the walls of some temples, this “triad of good” provides a platform for Zoroastrian life in the modem age. And underlying this platform is something that is more basic and that Zoroastrians have since ancient times: thoroughgoing emphasis on individual choice. As we have seen, following in the pattern of the primordial spirits, Spenta Mainyu and Angra Mainyu, all human beings have freedom of choice between good and evil. This choice not only determines the individual’s fate in the afterlife but also contributes to the ultimate fate of the cosmos itself.

Much of the world now embraces individual freedom of choice, but for most cultures this has happened only recently. That it has been a central tenet of Zoroastrianism from the time of its origins attests both to the profound insight of its founder, Zarathushtra, and to the special nature of the Zoroastrian religion down to the present day.

SEEKING ANSWERS

What Is Ultimate Reality?

Zoroastrians believe that Ahura Mazda, eternal and all-powerful, created the world and human beings. Ahura Mazda, allied with forces of order (asha) and good, continues to oversee the world. Also preexistent, however, is Angra Mainyu, the “Foul Spirit” who leads the forces of chaos and evil—those on the side of druj, the Lie. The cosmos is currently in a state of struggle between these opposing forces. This is cosmic dualism, which along with monotheism forms the basis of Zoroastrian teachings. Zoroastrians believe, however, that in time good will triumph over evil.

How Should We Live in This World?

Human beings are constantly presented with a choice: to live righteously according to the cosmic order (asha) or to live according to the Lie (druj). Zoroastrian texts contain many specific ethical commands. Today, however, many Zoroastrians focus on the more general ethical ideals set forth in the motto: “good thoughts, good words, good deeds.”

What Is Our Ultimate Purpose?

Human beings are believed to participate in the cosmic struggle currently ongoing, and therefore to play a part in the future triumph of good over evil. In the meantime, each individual strives for a heavenly afterlife, anticipating after death the judgment of the soul on the Chinvat Bridge through the soul’s encounter with the Daena, a feminine being who embodies the person’s ethical quality.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

For Review

1. Describe and distinguish between Zoroastrianism’s two types of dualism.

2. Explain Zoroastrian teachings on creation and cosmology.

3. Summarize the historical relevance of Iran (or Persia) for Zoroastrianism.

4. Why is fire such an important symbol in Zoroastrianism? In what specific ways does fire play a part in the practice of the religion?

5. Describe Zoroastrian funeral rites, noting how Zoroastrian teachings relate to practices.

For Further Reflection

1. Many Zoroastrians today consider their religion to be monotheistic. Do you agree?

2. Why do you think Westerners find Zarathushtra such a fascinating figure?

3. Imagine a Zoroastrian student talking about religion with Jewish, Christian, and Muslim students who know nothing about Zoroastrianism. Assuming the student wants to point out teachings Zoroastrianism has in common with their religions, what do you think he or she would say?

Chapter 10 Self-Quiz

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Chapter 10 Flashcards

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Ahura Maz

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING

Boyce, Mary. Textual Sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1984. An anthology of Zoroastrian sacred texts, suitably thorough for an in-depth study of the religion, and with reliable translations and commentary.

Rose, Jenny. Zoroastrianism: An Introduction. London: I. B. Tauris, 2011. An engaging, dependable, and in-depth introductory study, organized by historical period and geographical locations.

Stausberg, Michael. Zarathustra and Zoroastrianism: A Short Introduction, trans. Margret Preisler-Weller. Postscript by Anders Hultgard. London: Equinox, 2008. First published in German in 2005 (by Verlag C. H. Beck oHG), this slim volume provides a concise, yet remarkably informative, clearly written overview.

Click here for more suggested readings, weblinks, and other media for this chapter.

ONLINE RESOURCES

Zoroastrianism

http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~iranian/Zoroastrianisnn

Created and maintained by Harvard University professor emeritus Prods Oktor

Skjaervo, a leading authority on Zoroastrianism. Includes a large selection of annotated sacred texts.

Religion Facts: Zoroastrianism

http://www.reliqionfacts.com/zoroastrianism/index.htm

A good resource for, as the site states, “just the facts.”

The Metropolitan Museum of Art Heilbrunn Timeline of History

The site offers three essays with links to illustrations that are pertinent for studying the historical context of Zoroastrianism:

The Achaemenid Persian Empire: http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/acha/hd_acha.htm

The Parthian Empire: http://www.metmuseum.orq/toah/hd/part/hd_part.htm

The Sasanian Empire: http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/sass/hd_sass.htm

The World Zoroastrian Organisation

http://www.w-z-o.org

Created and maintained by Zoroastrians, a dependable resource that provides an “insider’s” perspective on the religion.

Click here for web links to sacred texts.

LIST OF KEY TERMS

Ahura Mazda

Amesha Spentas

Anqra Mainyu

Asha

Avesta

Chinvat Bridge

Daena

daevas

druj

dualism

fravashis

haoma

kusti

Navjote

Nowruz

sedreh

Sedreh Pushi

Spenta Mainyu

Yasna

yazatas

Zarathushtra