For Further Reading

The following is intended as an introductory guide to direct interested readers to other published materials about the subjects discussed in this book. It is not a comprehensive or even substantive bibliography; with very few exceptions, it is limited to English-language publications.

1. Reference works and general studies

2. The pre-Kievan era

3. The Kievan period, circa 850-1350

4. The Lithuanian-Polish period, circa 1350-1648

5. The Cossack state, 1648-1711

6. Ukraine in the eighteenth century

7. Ukraine in the Russian Empire, circa 1785-1914

8. Ukraine in the Austrian Empire, circa 1772-1914

9. World War I, revolution, and civil war

10. The interwar years

11. World War II

12. The post-1945 Soviet era

The following abbreviations will be used:

AUAAS- Annals of the Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in the United States HUS - Harvard Ukrainian Studies

JUS- Journal of Ukrainian Studies

1. Reference works and general studies

English-language readers are fortunate to have two comprehensive multivolume encyclopedias on all aspects of Ukraine: a thematic encyclopedia, Ukraine: A Con­cise Encyclopedia, 2 vols., ed. Volodymyr Kubijovyc (Toronto 1963-71); and an alphabetic encyclopedia, Encyclopedia of Ukraine, 5 vols., ed. Volodymyr Kubijovyc and Danylo Husar Struk (Toronto 1984-93). In addition to thousands of entries on a whole host of personalia, organizations, and events, both encyclopedias include useful bibliographies following major sections and entries. For the Soviet Marxist perspective, see the encyclopedic volume Soviet Ukraine, ed. M.P. Bazhan (Kiev 1969). Also useful are a translation of an earlier handbook produced during World War II: Ukraine and Its People, ed.

Readers interested in finding English-language works on various aspects of Ukraine have at their disposal several bibliographies. Among the most compre­hensive and up-to-date annotated bibliographies (covering the period from the 1950s to 1989) is Bohdan S. Wynar, Ukraine: A Bibliographic Guide to English- Language Publications (Englewood, Colo. 1990). Also of value, especially for older publications, are Eugene J. Pelenskyj, Ucrainica: Selected Bibliography on Ukraine in Western European Languages (Munich 1948); and Roman Weres, Ukraine: Selected References in the English Language, 2nd rev. ed. (Chicago 1974). Bibliographical guides are available as well for specific regions, in particular western Ukrainian lands: Paul Robert Magocsi, Galicia: A Historical Survey and Bibliographic Guide (Toronto 1983); idem, ‘An Historiographical Guide to Subcarpathian Rus',’ Aus­trian History Yearbook, IX-X (Houston 1973-74), pp. 201-265, reprinted in Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute Offprint Series, No. 1 (Cambridge, Mass. 1975); idem, Carpatho-Rusyn Studies: An Annotated Bibliography, Vol. I: 1975-1984 (New York 1988); and John-Paul Himka, ‘Bukovina,’ in his Galicia and Bukovina: A Research Handbook about Western Ukraine, Late 19th and 20th Centuries, Historic Sites Service Occasional Paper, No. 20 (Edmonton 1990), pp. 198-215. For all aspects of Ukrainian life in North America, see the annotated bibliography of Aleksander Sokolyszyn and Vladimir Wertsman, Ukrainians in Canada and the United States: A Guide to Information Services (Detroit 1981).

There is a wide variety of articles about Ukrainian subjects that have appeared during the past four decades in scholarly journals, access to which can be obtained by consulting the annual American Bibliography of Slavic and East European Studies (Bloomington, Ind. and Stanford, Calif. 1957- ), which includes separate sections titled ‘Ukraine’ in the chapters dealing with history, government, law, politics, lan­guage and linguistics, and literature.

The development of Ukrainian historical writing from earliest times to 1956 is provided in a comprehensive survey by Dmytro Doroshenko (with a supplement covering the years 1917 to 1956 by Olexander Ohloblyn), A Survey of Ukrainian His­toriography, in AUAAS, V-VI (1957). The manner in which a select number of Ukrainian historical issues have been treated in Polish and Russian as well as Ukrainian writings is surveyed in two volumes by Stephen Velychenko, National History as Cultural Process: A Survey of the Interpretations of Ukraine’s Past in Polish, Rus­sian, and Ukrainian Historical Writing from Earliest Times to 1914 (Edmonton 1992); and Shaping Identity in Eastern Europe and Russia: Soviet-Russian and Polish Accounts of Ukrainian History, 1914-1991 (New York 1993). Of interest in its own right is the polemical manner in which Soviet Ukrainian writers during the last years of Com­munist rule often dismissed Ukrainian scholarship in the West. A typical example of their politically motivated criticism is found in Nikolai N. Varvartsev, Ukrainian History in the Distorting Mirror of Sovietology (Kiev 1987). The challenges faced by the historical profession both in Ukraine and abroad following the recent political changes in the homeland are discussed by Orest Subtelny, ‘The Current State of Ukrainian Historiography,’ Journal of Ukrainian Studies, XVIII, 1-2 (Edmonton 1993), PP· 33-54; and by Mark von Hagen, ‘Does Ukraine Have a History?’ fol­lowed by commentaries by George G.

For readers interested in general surveys of Ukrainian history other than this one, there are several to choose from in English. In a class by itself is Mykhailo Hrushevs'kyi’s monumental Istoriia Ukralny-Rusy [History of Ukraine-Rus'], 10 vols. (Kiev 1898-1936; reprinted New York 1954-58 and Kiev 1991- ). Based on a wide variety of primary sources, this study traces developments from prehistoric times to 1658. All ten volumes are at present being translated into English by the Peter Jacyk Centre for Ukrainian Historical Research at the University of Alberta.

Hrushevs'kyi’s justification for treating Ukraine as a distinct historical entity is provided in a translation of his 1904 seminal article: Mychaylo Hrushevsky, ‘The Traditional Scheme of “Russian” History and the Problems of a Rational Organi­zation of the History of the East Slavs,’ AUAAS, I, 2 (1951), pp. 355-364, reprinted in From Kievan Rus' to Modern Ukraine: Formation of the Ukrainian Nation (Cam­bridge, Mass. 1984) and published separately (Winnipeg 1965). His popular one- volume history covering events to World War I (originally published 1911; updated 1921) was translated into English: Michael Hrushevsky, A History of Ukraine (New Haven, Conn. 1941; reprinted 1970). More scholarly in nature is Dmytro Doroshenko, A Survey of Ukrainian History (Winnipeg 1975), originally cov­ering the period from earliest times to 1914 with a supplement covering the years 1914-1975 by Oleh W. Gerus. Now dated is W.E.D. Allen, The Ukraine (Cambridge 1941), which concentrates on the modern period. Chronologically more compre­hensive but often unreliable are Isidore Nahayevsky, History of Ukraine (Phila- dephia 1962); and Nicholas L. Chirovsky, An Introduction to Ukrainian History, 3 vols. (New York 1981-86). A modern one-volume survey that includes information on Ukrainians abroad as well in the homeland is Orest Subtelny, Ukraine: A History, 2nd rev ed.

The aforementioned surveys are concerned primarily with the history of the Ukrainian people and not with a territory called Ukraine inhabited largely but not exclusively by Ukrainians. Although the territorial approach was adopted by Soviet Ukrainian historians, they too largely ignored Ukraine’s other peoples. This is the case even in the large-scale Istoriia Ukrains'koiRSR, 8 vols., ed. lurii Kondufor (Kiev 1977-79), produced during the last years of Communist rule. Although this work has never been - and is unlikely to be - translated into English, there is a concise one-volume version: Yuri Kondufor, ed., A Short History of the Ukraine (Kiev 1986). This and other Soviet Marxist accounts are useful for the emphasis they generally place on socioeconomic factors and for their attempt to cover developments in all regions within the boundaries of the post-1945 Ukrainian SSR. They suffer, however, from inadequate coverage or the elimina­tion of persons and events that are not considered as belonging to the ‘progres­sive forces,’ and from the need to fit Ukrainian historical developments into a Soviet Marxist conceptual framework.

There are also general historical surveys of Ukraine’s traditional Eastern Chris­tian churches: Ivan Wlasowsky, Outline History of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church, 2 vols. [earliest times to 1686] (New York and South Bound Brook, NJ. 1974-79); George Fedoriw, History of the Church in Ukraine (Toronto 1983); and, for the region of Transcarpathia and the immediately neighboring East Slavic-inhabited lands, Athanasius B. Pekar, The History of the Church in Carpathian Rus' (New York 1992) - All three provide valuable factual data even if they are clearly apologetic in spirit and defensive of either the Orthodox (Wlasowsky) or the Greek Catholic (Fedoriw, Pekar) viewpoint. More balanced are the chronology of events by Osyp Zinkewych and Andrew Sorokowski, comps., A Thousand Years of Christianity in Ukraine: An Encyclopedic Chronology (New York, Baltimore, and Toronto 1988); and the projected four-volume work by Sophia Senyk, A History of the Church in Ukraine, the first volume of which (covering the period to the end of the thirteenth cen­tury) has already appeared in the series Orientalia Christiana Analecta, Vol.

Readers interested in Ukrainian history may need to consult basic surveys and reference works dealing with neighboring countries whose own development has often been intimately related to that of Ukraine. There are numerous English-lan­guage histories of Russia. Among the best are Vasily O. Kluchevsky, A History of Russia, 5 vols. [to the 1850s] (New York i960); George Vernadsky, A History of Rus­sia, 5 vols. [to 1682] (New Haven and London 1943-69); Michael T. Florinsky, Russia: A History and Interpretation, 2 vols. [to 1917] (New York 1947); Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, A History of Russia, 5th ed. (New York 1993); and, for the twentieth century, Donald W. Treadgold, Twentieth Century Russia, 8th rev. ed. (Boulder, Colo. 1995). There are also surveys of the economy and culture of the former Rus­sian Empire and Soviet Union which effectively deal with the lands of the East Slavs: Peter I. Lyashchenko, History of the National Economy of Russia to the igiy Revolution (New York 1949); Jerome Blum, Lord and Peasant in Russia (New York 1964); and James H. Billington, The Icon and the Axe (New York 1967). Factual data on a wide range of historical events, organizations, and individuals (including many connected with Ukraine) are found in The Modem Encyclopedia of Russian and Soviet History, 58 vols., edited by Joseph L. Wieczynski et al. (Gulf Breeze, Fla. 1976-94).

For Poland, there are the older Cambridge History of Poland, 2 vols. (Cambridge 1950); and Norman Davies, God’s Playground: A History of Poland, 2 vols. (New York 1982), as well as a recently published encyclopedia of historical events and person­ages: George J. Lerski, Historical Dictionary of Poland, 966-1945 (Westport, Conn., and London 1966). A Polish perspective on the country’s former eastern border­lands, with particular emphasis on eastern Galicia, is provided in a historical sur­vey from earliest times to World War II by Adam Zoltowski, Border of Europe: A Study of the Polish Eastern Provinces (London: 1950). Little known but extremely useful and filled with extensive statistical data on Right Bank Ukraine and Galicia is the Polish Encyclopedia, 3 vols. (Geneva 1922-26). Of more limited value is the Encyclopedia Lituanica, 6 vols. (Boston 1970-78).

2. The pre-Kievan era

There is an extensive literature on the archaeology of lands north of the Black Sea and on the various nomadic and sedentary peoples who settled there during the millennium before the beginning of the common era (âñå). Most of the works deal primarily, if not exclusively, with developments on Ukrainian territory. An introductory survey covering the first millennium âñå as well as the next eight centuries to the eve of Kievan Rus' is provided in two works of George Vernadsky, A History of Russia, Vol. I: Ancient Russia (New Haven and London 1943); and The Origins of Russia (Oxford 1959). The interaction between the Greek settlements along the Black Sea coasts and the steppe hinterland is treated in studies by E. Minns, Scythians and Greeks: A Survey of Ancient History and Archaeology on the North Coast of theEuxine from the Danube to the Caucasus (Cambridge 1913); by Michael Rostovtzeff, Iranians and Greeks in South Russia (Oxford 1922); and, from the Greek perspective, by Marianna Koromila, The Greeks in the Black Sea from the Bronze Age to the Early Twentieth Century (Athens 1991), esp. chapters 3-4. There are also monographs on individual nomadic peoples, including Tadeusz Sulimirski, The Sarmatians (New York 1970); and on the Scythians, whose society and art are the subject of many works, including Tamara Rice, The Scythians (London 1957); R. Rolle, The World of the Scythians (London 1989); and Mikhail I. Artamanov, The Splendor of Scythian Art: Treasures from Scythian Tombs (New York 1969).

Studies on the first eight centuries of the common era before the establish­ment of Kievan Rus' deal either with invading nomadic peoples who made parts of Ukrainian territory their permanent home, or with the Slavs, whose original homeland is presumed to be centered in northwestern and north-central Ukraine. The relationships of these developments specifically to Ukrainian terri­tory is surveyed in Mykhailo Hrushevsky, History of Ukraine-Rus', Vol. I (Toronto 1996), esp. chapters 3-6, although much of the author’s information reflects the now-outdated state of archaeological research at the beginning of the twentieth century.

Monographs on individual groups and the civilizations they created include Alexander A. Vasiliev, The Goths in the Crimea (Cambridge, Mass. 1936); and D.M. Dunlop, The History of the Jewish Khazars (Princeton, N.J. 1954). It is the Slavs, however, who have received the most attention, whether in works that focus on archaeological and historical evidence: Marija Gimbautas, The Slavs (London 1971), and Zdenek Vana, The World of the Ancient Slavs (Detroit 1983); on linguistic data, Zbigniew Golab, The Origins of the Slavs: A Linguist’s View (Columbus, Ohio 1992); or on religious beliefs, Richard A.E. Mason, The Ancient Religion of Kyivan Rus' (Cleveland, L'viv, and Ulm 1994).

3. The Kievan period, circa 850-1350

Because of its importance in the historiography of Russia and eastern Europe in general, the literature in English on Kievan Rus' is quite well developed. While general studies attempt to encompass the entire Kievan realm from the Baltic to the Black Sea, inevitably much attention is given to the seat of the grand prince, Kiev, and to the surrounding southern Rus'/Ukrainian territories.

Although by now dated, there is a still-useful historiographic review of primary sources by Nora K. Chadwick, The Beginnings of Russian History: An Inquiry into Sources (Cambridge 1946; reprinted 1966). Several of the sources themselves have appeared in annotated English translations, including The Russian Primary Chroni­cle: Laurentian Text [to 1116], translated by Samuel Hazzard Cross and Olgerd P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor (Cambridge, Mass. 1953; reprinted 1973); The Galician- Volynian Chronicle [to 1292], translated by George A. Perfecky, 2nd rev. ed. (Cam­bridge, Mass. 1994); The Nikonian Chronicle, 5 vols., translated by Serge A. and Bettyjean Zenkovsky (Princeton, N.J. 1984-89), esp. Vols. I and II [to 1240]; Medi­eval Russian Laws, translated by George Vernadsky, 2nd ed. (New York 1969) - in particular the short and long versions of the Pravda Russkaia; and Sergei Push- karev, comp., A Source Book for Russian History from Early Times to 1917 (New Haven and London 1972), esp. chapter 2. The concrete manner in which law functioned in Kievan Rus' is discussed by Daniel H. Kaiser in The Growth of the Law in Medieval Russia (Princeton, N.J. 1980). A few documents and excerpts from some of the best secondary sources on aspects of Kievan Rus' are found in Daniel H. Kaiser and Gary Marker, comps., Reinterpreting Russian History: Readings, 86o-i86os (New York and Oxford 1994), chapters 1-8. The invaluable report of the tenth-century Byzantine emperor Constantine Pophyrogenitus, with its detailed description of the Rus', the Khazars, and other peoples north of the Black Sea, is available in English translation: De Administrando Imperio, edited and translated by Gy. Morav- csik and R.J.H. Jenkins, 2nd rev. ed. (Washington, D.C. 1967), and Vol. II: Com­mentary, by F. Dvornik, R.J.H. Jenkins, B. Lewis, et al. (London 1962). The exten­sive commentary from volume II dealing with various aspects of the early Rus' is reprinted in Dimitrii Obolensky, Byzantium and the Slavs: Collected Studies (London 1971), chapter 5.

Introductory surveys on Kievan Rus' are available in one-volume histories by the late nineteenth-century Russian historian Vasily O. Kluchevsky, A History of Russia, Vol. I (New York i960); by the Russian emigre scholar George Vernadsky, A History of Russia, Vol. II: Kievan Russia (New Haven and London 1948); and, from the Russian Marxist perspective, by Boris Grekov, Kiev Rus (Moscow 1959), and Boris Rybakov, Kievan Rus' (Moscow 1984). Kievan Rus' also features promi­nently in Janet Martin, Medieval Russia, 980-1584 (Cambridge 1995), esp. chapters

1- 6, which is particularly useful for a concluding chapter on historiography and for the most comprehensive up-to-date bibliography of works on Kievan Rus' in western languages.

The economy and urban geography is surveyed in Mikhail Tikhomirov, The Towns of Ancient Rus (Moscow 1959). In addition to the often extensive discussion of economic developments in each of the aforementioned surveys, of importance are Daniel H. Kaiser, ‘The Economy of Kievan Rus': Evidence from the Pravda Rus'skaia’; Peter B. Golden, ‘Aspects of the Nomadic Factor in the Economic Development of Kievan Rus"; and Thomas S. Noonan, ‘The Flourishing of Kiev’s International and Domestic Trade, ca. 1100-ca. 1240,’ in I.S. Koropeckyj, ed., Ukrainian Economic History: Interpretive Essays (Cambridge, Mass. 1991), pp. 37-146; David B. Miller, ‘Monumental Building and Its Patrons as Indicators of Eco­nomic and Political Trends in Rus', 900—1262,’ Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuro­pas, XXXVIII, 3 (Stuttgart 1990), pp. 321-355; and Vladimir I. Mezentsev, ‘The Territorial and Demographie Development of Medieval Kiev and Other Major Cities of Rus',’ Russian Review, XLVIII, 2 (Columbus, Ohio 1989), pp. 145-170.

Most of the works above deal with the entire territorial extent of Kievan Rus', although they tend to end their narratives in the 1240s, with the Mongol inva­sions. By contrast, the first three volumes of Hrushevs'kyi’s history not only pro­vide great detail on developments specifically on Ukrainian territory, but also treat the principality/Kingdom of Galicia-Volhynia as a direct continuation of Kievan Rus' until its own demise in the 1340s: Mykhailo Hrushevsky, History of Ukraine-Rus', Vols. I-III (Toronto, forthcoming).

Of all the topics related to Kievan Rus', the one with perhaps the most extensive literature in English as well as in other languages is the question of the origin of Rus'. The most wide-ranging discussion of this issue as well as of the early settle­ment of eastern Europe in general and the evolution of and differentiation among the East Slavs is found in two volumes by Henryk Paszkiewicz, The Origin of Russia (London 1954; reprinted New York 1969); and The Making of the Russian Nation (London 1963; reprinted Westport, Conn. 1977). The controversy over the possible Scandivanian origin of the Rus' is discussed at length in Alexander Riasanovsky, The Norman Theory of the Origin of the Russian State: A Critical Analysis (Stanford, Calif. i960), while the actual arguments for and against the theory appear in several works, including Vilhelm Thomsen, The Relations between Ancient Russia and Scandi­navia and the Origin of the Russian State (Oxford and London 1877; reprinted New York 1964); Adolf Stender-Petersen, Varangica (Aarhus 1953); Imre Boba, Nomads, Northmen and Slavs: Eastern Europe in the Ninth Century (The Hague 1967); Omeljan Pritsak, The Origin of Rus', Vol. I (Cambridge, Mass. 1981); and Thomas S. Noonan, ‘Why the Vikings First Came to Russia,’ Jahrbücherfür Geschichte Osteuropas, XXXIV, 3 (Wiesbaden and Stuttgart 1986), pp. 321-348.

The subsequent evolution of the term Rus'/Rus' Land to designate related ethnic groups, a geographic territory, or an ideological myth is in part dealt with in the previously mentioned works on the origin of Rus', but specifically in Paul Bushkovitch, ‘Rus' in the Ethnic Nomenclature of the Povest vremennykh let,' Cahiers du monde russe et sovietique, XII, 1-2 (Paris 1971), pp. 296-306; Charles J. Halperin, ‘The Concept of the Russian Land from the Ninth to the Fourteenth Centuries,’ Russian History, II, 1 (Pittsburgh 1975), pp. 29-38; and idem, ‘The Concept of the Ruskaia zemlia and Medieval National Consciousness from the Tenth to the Fifteenth Centuries,’ Nationalities Papers, VII, 1 (Charleston, Ill. 1980), pp. 75-86.

There is as well an extensive body of scholarship in English on cultural life in Kievan Rus'. Many works deal with what Russian historiography describes as ‘Old Russian’ culture and literature, as in a general collection of essays by Boris D. Grekov, The Culture of Kiev Rus (Moscow 1947); an analysis of several literary works, including the chronicles, by Dmitry Likhachev, The Great Heritage: The Classical Literature of Old Rus (Moscow 1981); and the initial chapters of descriptive surveys by Nikolai K. Gudzy, History of Early Russian Literature (New York 1949), and by J. Fennell and A. Stokes, Early Russian Literature (Berkeley, Calif. 1974). A Ukrainian perspective on the same period is provided in the first half of Dmytro Cyzevs'kyj, A History of Ukrainian Literature (Littleton, Colo. 1975), esp. chapters

2- 4·

Several of the literary works themselves from the Kievan period are available in English translation, whether as part of collections: Anthology of Old Russian Literature, compiled by Adolf Stender-Petersen (New York 1954); Medieval Russia’s Epics, Chronicles and Tales, compiled by Serge A. Zenkovsky, 2nd rev. ed. (New York 1974); The Hagiography of Kievan Rus', translated by Paul Hollings­worth (Cambridge, Mass. 1992); Sermons and Rhetoric of Kievan Rus', translated by Simon Franklin (Cambridge, Mass. 1991); The Edificatory Prose of Kievan Rus', translated by William R. Veder (Cambridge, Mass. 1994); or as individual works: The Song of Igor’s Campaign, translated by Vladimir Nabokov (New York i960), and The Tale of the Campaign of Igor, translated by Robert C. Howes (New York 1973) J The Paterik of the Kievan Caves Monastery, translated by Muriel Heppell (Cambridge, Mass. 1989). Monuments of architecture are treated in the early chapters of George Heard Hamilton, The Art and Architecture of Russia, 3rd ed. (New York 1983); and in two works by William C. Brumfield, Gold in Azure (Bos­ton 1983), and A History of Russian Architecture (Cambridge 1993). The cathedral of St Sophia has been given particular attention in Olexa Powstenko, The Cathe­dral of St. Sophia in Kiev, in AUAAS, III-IV (1954); and in Andrzej Poppe, ‘The Building of the Church of St Sophia in Kiev,’ Journal of Medieval History, VII, 1 (Amsterdam 1981), pp. 15-66, reprinted in idem, The Rise of Christian Russia (London 1982), chapter 4.

The crucial relationship between the culture of Kievan Rus' and its spiritual source, Byzantium, is best explored in Dmitri Obolensky, The Byzantine Common­wealth, 500-1453 (London 1971), esp. chapters 6 and 7. Particular attention has been given to Kiev’s acceptance of Christianity and the organization of the Rus' church, both in general histories of the church (see above, section 1) and in the historical surveys mentioned previously in this section, as well as in Yaroslav N. Shchapov, State and Church in Early Russia, loth- 13th Centuries (New Rochelle, N.Y., Athens, and Moscow 1993); A.P. Vlasto, The Entry of the Slavs into Christendom (Cambridge 1970), esp. chapter 5; Andrzej Poppe, The Rise of Christian Russia (London 1982), esp. chapters 2 and 3; John Fennell, A History of the Russian Church to 1448 (New York 1995); and the extensive collection of essays by several special­ists on the conversion as well as a wide range of topics dealing with Byzantium’s impact on Kievan Rus' in Proceedings of the International Congress Commemorating the Millennium of Christianity in Rus’-Ukraine, ed. Omeljan Pritsak and Ihor Sevcenko, special issue of HUS, XII-XIII (1988-89).

Kiev’s relationship to the nomadic invaders from the east is treated in articles by C.A. Macartney, ‘The Pechenegs,’ Slavonic and East European Review, VIII (Lon­don 1929-30), pp. 342-355; Bruce A. Boswell, ‘The Kipchak Turks,’ ibid., VI (London 1927-28), pp. 65-85; Omeljan Pritsak, ‘The Pecenegs: A Case Study of Social and Economic Transformation,’ Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi, I (Lisse 1975), PP· 211-235; and idem, ‘The Polovcians and Rus',’ ibid., II (1982), pp. 321­380. It is the Mongols, however, who have received the most extensive treatment, including a survey of their history both before and after their destruction of Kiev by George Vernadsky, A History of Russia, Vol. Ill: The Mongols and Russia (New Haven and London 1953); and two extended interpretive essays on their contem­porary and subsequent impact on the East Slavic lands: Charles J. Halperin, Russia and the Golden Horde (Bloomington, Ind. 1985); and idem, The Tatar Yoke (Colum­bus, Ohio 1986). The Mongol relationship to the last independent principality in the southern Rus' lands is discussed in Michael B. Zdan, ‘The Dependence of Halych-Volyn' Rus' on the Golden Horde,’ Slavonic and East European Review, XXXV (London 1957), pp. 505-522.

Three of Kiev’s grand princes are the focus of English-language biographies. Volodymyr ‘the Great’ is the subject of a popular and well-informed historical novel by Vladimir Volkoff, Vladimir the Russian King (London 1984). More schol­arly are Dimitri Obolensky, ‘Vladimir Monomakh,’ in his Six Byzantine Portraits (Oxford 1988), pp. 83-114; and Martin Dimnik, Mikhail, Prince of Chernigov and Grand Prince of Kiev, 1224-1246 (Toronto 1981), which provides a good picture of the status of the southern Rus' lands on the eve of the Mongol invasion. The sub­sequent decline of Kiev as a political and ecclesiastical center in eastern Europe and the struggle between Muscovy and Lithuania to replace it is presented in a masterful work by John Meyendorff, Byzantium and the Rise of Russia: A Study of Byz- antino-Russian Relations in the Fourteenth Century (Crestwood, N.Y. 1989); and in two essays by Dimitri Obolensky: ‘Byzantium, Kiev and Moscow: A Study in Ecclesiasti­cal Relations,’ Dumbarton Oaks Papers, XI (Washington, D.C. 1957), pp. 23-78, reprinted in his Byzantium and the Slavs: Collected Studies (London 1971), chapter 6; and ‘Metropolitan Cyprian of Kiev and Moscow,’ in his Six Byzantine Portraits (Oxford 1988), pp. 173-200.

4. The Lithuanian-Polish period, circa 1350-1648

The most comprehensive treatment of the three centuries of Lithuanian and Pol­ish rule are five volumes in Mykhailo Hrushevsky’s History of Ukraine-Rus' (Tor­onto, forthcoming). Among the topics covered in depth are political relations (Vol. IV); socioeconomic, cultural, and religious developments (Vols. V and VI); and the Cossack movement (Vols. VII and VIII). Excerpts of sixteen documents from this period dealing with the Union of Lublin, the church union, and the rise of the Cossacks are available in English translation in Sergei Pushkarev, A Source Book for Russian History from Early Times to 1917, Vol. I (New Haven and London 1972), esp. pp. 283-296.

Aside from Hrushevs'kyi, the available secondary literature in English deals with only a few topics. The rise of Lithuania and its rivalry with the Golden Horde for the southern lands of Kievan Rus' are reviewed by Henryk Paszkiewicz, The Origin of Russia (London 1954), chapters 8-9; Jaroslaw Pelenski, ‘The Contest between Lithuania-Rus' and the Golden Horde in the Fourteenth Century for Supremacy over Eastern Europe,’ Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi, II (Wiesbaden 1982), pp. 300-320; and more extensively in a recent monograph by S.C. Rowell, Lithuania Ascending: A Pagan Empire within East-Central Europe, 1295-1345 (Cam­bridge 1994), which includes as well a detailed discussion of the ‘Lithuanian’ metropolitanate of Rus'.

The impact of Lithuanian and, later, Polish political institutions on Ukrainian lands is explored by Omeljan Pritsak, ‘Kievan Rus' and t6th-i7th-Century Ukraine,’ in Ivan L. Rudnytsky, ed., Rethinking Ukrainian History (Edmonton 1981), pp. 1-28; and by Andrzej Kaminski, ‘Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Its Citizens: Was the Commonwealth a Stepmother for Cossacks and Ruthe- nians?’ in Peter J. Potichnyj, ed., Poland and Ukraine: Past and Present (Edmonton and Toronto 1980), pp. 32-57. The legal system of Lithuania, which was imple­mented in Ukrainian lands, is discussed (with legal texts) by Karl von Loewe, The Lithuanian Statute of 1529 (London 1976); and Leo Okinshevich, The Law of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania: Background and Bibliography (New York 1953). Jaroslaw Pelenski devotes five studies to the ideological claims of Poland and Muscovy to Ukrainian lands: ‘The Incorporation of the Ukrainian Lands of Old Rus’ into Crown Poland (1569),’ in American Contributions to the Seventh International Congress ofSlavists (The Hague and Paris 1973), pp. 19-52; ‘The Origins of the Official Muscovite Claims to the “Kievan Inheritance”,’ HUS, I, 1 (1977), pp. 29-52; ‘The Contest for the “Kievan Succession” (1155-1175): The Religious-Ecclesiastical Dimension,’ HUS, XII-XIII (1988-89), pp. 761-780; ‘The Sack of Kiev of 1169: Its Significance for the Succession to Kievan Rus',’ HUS, XI, 3-4 (1987), pp. 303-316; and ‘The Contest for the “Kievan Inheritance” in Russian-Ukrainian Relations: The Origins and Early Ramifications,’ in Peter J. Potichnyj et al., eds., Ukraine and Russia in Their Historical Encounter (Edmonton 1992), pp. 3-19. Finally, the contro­versial question of the role of central Ukrainian lands in Poland’s international trade is addressed by Stephen Velychenko, ‘Cossack Ukraine and Baltic Trade, 1600-1648: Some Observations on an Unresolved Issue,’ in I.S. Koropeckyj, ed., Ukrainian Economic History: Interpretive Essays (Cambridge, Mass. 1991), pp. 151­171.

The question of the Ukrainian elite, its gradual absorption into the Polish sociopolitical structure, and the degree to which its members retained a sense of their political, religious, and national distinctiveness is explored in three studies by Frank E. Sysyn: ‘The Problem of Nobilities in the Ukrainian Past: The Polish Period, 1569-1648,’ in Ivan L. Rudnytsky, ed., Rethinking Ukrainian History (Edmonton 1981), pp. 29-102; ‘Ukrainian-Polish Relations in the 17th Century: The Role of National Consciousness and National Conflict in the Khmel'nyts'kyi Movement,’ in Peter J. Potichnyj, ed., Poland and Ukraine: Past and Present (Edmon­ton and Toronto 1980), pp. 52-82; and ‘Regionalism and Political Thought in 17th-Century Ukraine: The Nobility’s Grievances at the Diet of 1641,’ HUS, VI, 2 (1982), pp. 167-190; and by Teresa Chynczewska-Hennel, ‘The National Con­sciousness of Ukrainian Nobles and Cossacks from the End of the 16th to the Mid- 17th Century,’ HUS, X, 3-4 (1986), pp. 377-392.

Despite the importance of the Cossacks in Ukraine’s history, there is only a lim­ited amount of material available about them in English. The Cossack phenome­non as an inspiration for Ukrainian political culture is discussed in O.W. Gerus, ‘Manifestations of the Cossack Idea in Modern Ukrainian History: The Cossack Legacy and Its Impact,’ Ukratns'kyi istoryk, XIX, 1-2 (New York, Toronto, and Munich 1982), pp. 22-39. An informative survey by G. Patrick March, Cossacks of the Brotherhood: The Zaporog Kosh of the Dnieper River (New York 1990), traces their history from the establishment of the first sich to its destruction in 1775. Two other studies deal with the early stages of the movement: a monograph on the late sixteenth-century revolts by Linda Gordon, Cossack Rebellions: Social Turmoil in the Sixteenth-Century Ukraine (Albany, N.Y. 1983); and an interpretive essay by Wlady­slaw Serczyk, ‘The Commonwealth and the Cossacks in the First Quarter of the 17th Century,’ HUS, II, 1 (1978), pp. 73-93. Of particular value are the contempo­rary accounts of Cossack life by Guillaume Le Vasseur, Sieur de Beauplan, A Description of Ukraine [1660] (Cambridge, Mass. 1993); and of the group’s diplo­matic activity: Lubomyr Wynar, ed., Habsburgs and Zaporozhian Cossacks: The Diary of Erich Lassota von Steblau, 1594 (Littleton, Colo. 1975). The place of Ukraine in the larger region is explored by Steven Velychenko, ‘The Ukrainian-Rus Lands in Eastern European Politics, 1572-1632: Some Preliminary Observations,’ East Euro­pean Quarterly, XIX, 3 (Boulder, Colo. 1985), pp. 281-288.

The evolution of the Tatars and their Crimean Khanate, and its significant impact during this era on Ukrainian lands farther north, is outlined in Alan Fisher, The Crimean Tatars (Stanford, Calif. 1978), esp. chapters 1-5; idem, ‘The Ottoman Crimea in the Sixteenth Century,’ HUS, V, 2 (1981), pp. 135-170; and Beatrice Forbes Manz, ‘The Clans of the Crimean Khanate, 1466-1532,’ HUS, II, 3 (1978), pp. 282-310. The early settlement of the Jews and their particular situa­tion are outlined by Shmuel Ettinger, ‘The Legal and Social Status of the Jews of Ukraine from the 15th Century to the Cossack Uprising of 1648,’JUS, XVII, 1-2 (1992), pp. 107-140. Eleonora Nadel-Golobic discusses the importance ofjews and Armenians in the economy of western Ukraine in ‘Armenians and Jews in Medieval Lvov: Their Role in Oriental Trade, 1400-1600,’ Cahiers du monde russe et sovietique, XX, 3-4 (Paris 1979), PP- 345-388. The influence of Greek merchants and scholars on schools and book printing is outlined by laroslav Isaievych, ‘Greek Culture in the Ukraine, 1550-1650,’ Modern Greek Studies Yearbook, VI (Min­neapolis 1990), pp. 97-122.

Much more attention has been given to cultural developments in which reli­gion and churchmen played a leading role than to other topics during this period. A general introduction to the period, with emphasis on the entire East Slavic/Orthodox world, is found in L.R. Lewitter, ‘Poland, the Ukraine and Rus­sia in the 17th Century,’ Slavonic and East European Review, XXVII (London 1948­49)> PP· ^and 414-429; William K. Medlin and Christos G. Patrinelis,

Renaissance Influences and Religious Reforms in Russia: Western and Post-Byzantine Impacts on Culture and Education (Geneva 1971); Georges Florovsky, Ways of Russian Theology, Pt. 1 (Belmont, Mass. 1979), esp. chapter 2; Frank E. Sysyn, ‘The Forma­tion of Modern Ukrainian Religious Culture: The 16th and 17th Centuries,’ in Geoffrey A. Hosking, ed., Church, Nation, and State in Russia and Ukraine (Edmon­ton 1990), pp. 1-22; and laroslav Isaievych, ‘Early Modern Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine: Culture and Cultural Relations,’JUS, XVII, 1-2 (1992), pp. 17-28. laro­slav Isaievych gives particular attention to the brotherhood schools and book printing in ‘Between Eastern Tradition and Influences from the West: Confrater­nities in Early Modern Ukraine and Byelorussia,’ Richerche Slavistiche, XXXVII (Rome 1990), pp. 269-293 (revised version in Jerzy Kloczowski and Henryk Gapski, eds., Belarus, Lithuania, Poland, Ukraine [Lublin and Rome 1994], pp. 175­198); and ‘Books and Book Printing in Ukraine in the 16th and First Half of the 17th Centuries,’ Solanus, N.S., VII (London 1993), pp. 69-95.

Oscar Halecki, From Florence to Brest, 1439-1596, 2nd ed. (New York 1968) pro­vides the broader historical context of the movement for church union. Specific reference to the creation of the Uniate/ Greek Catholic Church is found in Taras Hunczak, ‘The Politics of Religion: The Union of Brest, 1596,’ Ukrains'kyi istoryk, IX, 3-4 (New York 1972), pp. 97-106; and Russel P. Moroziuk, Politics of a Church Union (Chicago 1983). The religious program of the union in the broader context of the Counter Reformation and the spirited polemics it produced are the sub­jects of essays by Mikhail Dmitriev and Ihor Sevcenko in Early Modem Ukraine, a special issue of JUS, XVII, 1-2 (1992), pp. 29-58. Two of the actual polemics from this period are available in English translation: Lev Kreuza’s ‘Defense of Church Unity ’ (1617) and Zaxarija Kopystens' kyi’s ‘Palinodija ar Book of Defense of the Holy Apostolic Eastern Catholic Church and Holy Patriarchs’ (1620-1623), translated by Bohdan Struminsky, 2 pts. (Cambridge, Mass. 1995).

A few churchmen and intellectuals from the period have received particular attention in three studies by David A. Frick: Meletij Smotryc'kyj (Cambridge, Mass. 1995); ‘Zyzanij and Smotryc'kyj (Moscow, Constantinople, and Kiev): Episodes in Cross-Cultural Misunderstanding,’JUS, XVII, 1-2 (1992), pp. 67-94; and ‘Meletij Smotryc'kyj and the Ruthenian Question in the Early 17th Century,’ HUS, VIII,

3- 4 (1984), pp. 351-375 and IX, 1-2 (1985), pp. 25-52; in essays on Petro Mohyla by Ihor Sevcenko, Frank E. Sysyn, and Matei Cazacu in HUS, VIII, 1-2 (1984), pp. 9-44 and 155-222; and in four studies about Ivan Vyshens'kyi by Dmitry Ci- zevsky in AUAAS, I, 2 (1951), pp. 113-126, and by Harvey Goldblatt in HUS, XV, 1-2 and 3-4 (1991), pp. 7-34 and 354-382, and HUS, XVI, 1-2 (1992), pp. 37~66. Finally, an otherwise little known aspect of religious life in Ukraine is explored in great detail by George H. Williams, ‘Protestants in the Ukraine during the Period of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth,’ HUS, II, 1 and 2 (1978), pp. 41-72 and 184-210.

5. The Cossack state, 1648-1711

The revolution of 1648 and Bohdan Khmel'nyts'kyi are of central concern to the historical literature on this period. The most comprehensive survey of events beginning with the decade leading up to the revolution until the death of Khmel'nyts'kyi is Mykhailo Hrushevsky, History of Ukraine-Rus', Vol. VIII, pts. 2 and 3 and Vol. IX, pts. 1 and 2 (Toronto, forthcoming). There are also two biogra­phies - the popular work by George Vernadsky, Bohdan, Hetman of Ukraine (New Haven, Conn. 1941); and the more sophisticated monograph by Frank E. Sysyn, Between Poland and the Ukraine: The Dilemma of Adam Kysil, 1600-1653 (Cambridge, Mass. 1985) - which place the careers of Khmel'nyts'kyi and Kysil' in the broader context of developments just before and during the 1648 revolution. Excerpts from documents and treaties among the Cossacks, Poland, and Muscovy between 1649 and 1686 are available in English translation in Sergei Pushkarev, A Source Book for Russian History from Early Times to 1917, Vol. I (New Haven and London 1972), esp. pp. 296-306. The structure of the Cossack state that came into being during the revolution is outlined in Leo Okinshevich, Ukrainian Society and Govern­ment, 1648-1781 (Munich 1978); and George Gajecky, The Cossack Administration of the Hetmanate, 2 vols. (Cambridge, Mass. 1978). The economic implications of the new regime in Dnieper Ukraine are reviewed briefly by Carol B. Stevens, ‘Trade and Muscovite Economic Policy toward the Ukraine: The Movement of Cereal Grains during the Second Half of the 17th Century,’ in I.S. Koropeckyj, ed., Ukrainian Economic History: Interpretive Essays (Cambridge, Mass. 1991), pp. 172­185.

The status of the Jews of Ukraine during the Khmel'nyts'kyi era has attracted the attention of several authors. The graphic contemporary account by Nathan Hanover, Abyss ofDespair/YevenMetzulah: The Famous 17th-Century Chronicle Depicting Jewish Life in Russia and Poland during the Chmielnicki Massacres of 1648-1649 (New Brunswick, N.J. and London 1983) is available in English translation. The ques­tionable historical value of this and other accounts is discussed in three interpre­tive essays: Bernard D. Weinryb, ‘The Hebrew Chronicles on Bohdan Khmel'- nyts'kyi and the Cossack-Polish War,’ HUS, I, 2 (1977), pp. 153-177; Jaroslaw Pelenski, ‘The Cossack Insurrections in Jewish-Ukrainian Relations,’ in Peter J. Potichnyj and Howard Aster, eds., Ukrainian-Jewish Relations in Historical Perspec­tive (Edmonton 1988), pp. 31-42; and Frank Sysyn, ‘The Cossack Insurrections in Jewish-Ukrainian Relations,’ ibid., pp. 43-56. The otherwise little known presence and economic importance of the Armenians is discussed by Yaroslav Dashkevych, ‘Armenians in the Ukraine at the Time of Hetman Bohdan Xmel'nyc'kyj, 1648-1657,’ HUS, III—IV (1979-80), pp. 166-188.

Particular attention has been given to the 1654 agreement of Pereiaslav in a wide-ranging survey of all the existing literature on the subject by John Basarab, Pereiaslav 1654: A Historiographical Study (Edmonton 1982); and in monographs by Alexander Ohloblyn, Treaty of Pereyaslav 1654 (Toronto and New York 1954); and Mykhaylo I. Braichevskyi, Annexation or Reunification: Critical Notes on One Concep­tion (Munich 1974). The place of the agreement in the larger historical frame­work of eastern Europe is provided by Hans-Joachim Torke, ‘The Unloved Alliance: Political Relations between Muscovy and Ukraine in the 17th Century,’ in Peter J. Potichnyj et al., eds., Ukraine and Russia in Their Historical Encounter (Edmonton 1992), pp. 39-66.

The status of Ukrainian lands as the object of rivalry between its powerful neighbors in the wake of the 1654 agreement is given extensive coverage in Mykhailo Hrushevsky, History of Ukraine-Rus', Vol. X [1657-1659] (Toronto, forth­coming); C. Bickford O’Brien, Muscovy and the Ukraine from the Pereiaslav Agreement to the Truce of Andrusova, 1654-1667 (Berkeley and Los Angeles 1963); Andrzej Sulima Kaminski, Republic vs. Autocracy: Poland-Lithuania and Russia, 1686-I6g7 (Cambridge, Mass. 1993); Orest Subtelny, ‘Cossack Ukraine and the Turco- Islamic World,’ in Ivan L. Rudnytsky, ed., Rethinking Ukrainian History (Edmonton 1981), pp. 120-134; and Zbigniew Wojcik, ‘The Early Period of Pavlo Teterja’s Hetmancy in the Right-Bank Ukraine 1661-1663,’ HUS, III-IV (1979-80), pp. 958-992. The last attempts to reach a political accommodation with Poland are given particular attention in Janusz Tazbir, ‘The Political Reversals of Jurij Nemyryc,’ HUS, V, 3 (1981), pp. 306-319; and Andrzej Kaminski, ‘The Cossack Experiment in Szlachta Democracy in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: The Hadiach (Hadziacz) Union,’ HUS, I, 2 (1977), pp. 178-197.

Ukraine’s leading cultural and educational institution during this period is the subject of three works: Alexander Sydorenko, The Kievan Academy in the Seventeenth Century (Ottawa 1977); Frank B. Kortschmaryk, The Kievan Academy and Its Role in the Organization of Russia at the Turn of the Seventeenth Century (New York 1976); and The Kiev Mohyla Academy, special issue of HUS, VIII, 1-2 (1984). The early career of one member of the Kiev Academy, who is best known for his later ecclesiastical career in Muscovy/Russia, is described in James Cracraft, ‘Prokopovyc’s Kiev Period Reconsidered,’ HUS, II, 2 (1978), pp. 138-157.

The degree to which the Khmel'nyts'kyi uprising was actually a national revolt and the question of how contemporary intellectuals viewed the Cossack leader, the state he created, and its relationship to their own national identity are subjects explored in several insightful studies by Frank E. Sysyn: ‘The Khmelnytsky Upris­ing and Ukrainian Nation-Building,’JUS, XVII, 1-2 (1992), pp· 141^_17°; ‘Con­cepts of Nationhood in Ukrainian History Writing, 1620-1690,’ HUS, X, 3-4 (1986), pp. 393-423; ‘17th-Century Views on the Causes of the Khmel'nyts'kyi Uprising: An Examination of the “Discourse on the Present Cossack or Peasant War”,’ HUS, N, 4 (1981), pp. 430-466, together with the text of the ‘Discourse’ and a synopsis in HUS,N, 2 (1981), pp. 245-257; and ‘The Cossack Chronicles and the Development of Modern Ukrainian Culture and National Identity,’ HUS, XIV, 3-4 (1990), pp. 592-607. See also Serhii Plokhy, ‘The Symbol of Little Russia: The Pokrova Icon and Early Modern Ukrainian Political Ideology,’ JUS, XVII, 1-2 (1992), pp. 171-188.

The last important Cossack hetman from this period, Ivan Mazepa, has a rather extensive literature in English. Clarence A. Manning wrote a popular biography, Hetman of Ukraine Ivan Mazeppa (New York 1957); more recently, Hubert F. Babin­ski, The Mazeppa Legend in European Romanticism (New York 1974) has surveyed how the Mazepa legend has been treated in European literature, painting, and music. Analytical studies on critical periods in Mazepa’s career are provided by Orest Subtelny, ‘Mazepa, Peter I, and the Question of Treason,’ HUS, II, 2 (1978) pp. 158-183; and idem, ed., On theEve of Poltava: The Letters of Ivan Mazepa to Adam Sienawski, 1704-1708 (New York 1975).

6. Ukraine in the eighteenth century

The structure and functioning of the Cossack state in the eighteenth century are discussed in the works by Okinshevich and Gajecky (above, section 5). Much attention has also been given to the efforts to retain Cossack autonomy within an expanding Russian Empire. The activity of the exiled Cossack hetman, Pylyp Orlyk, is the subject of articles by Borys Krupnytsky, Mykola Vasylenko, and Elie Borschak, in AUAAS, VI, 3-4 (1958), pp. 1247-1312; and of a monograph by Orest Subtelny, The Mazepists: Ukrainian Separatism in the Early Eighteenth Century (New York 1981). There is also a more popular biography by Elie Borschak, Hryhor Orlyk: France’s Cossack General (Toronto 1956).

The final demise of Cossack autonomy within the Russian Empire, the adapta­tion of Ukraine’s elite to Russian imperial society, and its efforts to retain a dis­tinct regional/national identity are best described in four works by Zenon E. Kohut: Russian Centralism and Ukrainian Autonomy: Imperial Absorption of the Het- manate, 176OS-183OS (Cambridge, Mass. 1988); ‘The Ukrainian Elite in the 18th Century and Its Integration into the Russian Nobility,’ in Ivo Banac and Paul Bushkovitch, eds., The Nobility in Russia and Eastern Europe (New Haven, Conn. 1983), pp. 65-98; ‘The Development of a Little Russian Identity and Ukrainian Nationbuilding,’ HUS, X, 3-4 (1986), pp. 559-576; and ‘The Problem of Ukrainian Orthodox Church Autonomy in the Hetmanate (1654-1780s),’ ibid., XIV, 3-4 (1990), pp. 364-376. The decline in Ukraine’s cultural and social status after two centuries of Muscovite-Russian rule is the subject of Marc Raeff s essay ‘Ukraine and Imperial Russia: Intellectual and Political Encounters from the 17th to 19th Century,’ in Peter J. Potichnyj et al., eds., Ukraine and Russia in Their Histor­ical Encounter (Edmonton 1992), pp. 69-85. The last of the major uprisings against Polish rule in Ukraine is discussed by Jaroslaw Pelenski, ‘The Haidamak Insurrections and the Old Regimes in Eastern Europe,’ in The American and Euro­pean Revolutions, 1776-1848 (Iowa City 1980), pp. 228-242.

The economic transformation of Ukrainian lands under Russian imperial rule is described by Bohdan Krawchenko, ‘Petrine Mercantilist Economic Policies toward the Ukraine,’ in I.S. Koropeckyj, ed., Ukrainian Economic History: Interpretive Essays (Cambridge, Mass. 1991), pp. 186-209. Sociodemographic and territorial changes are given much greater attention in monographs by N.D. Polons'ka- Vasylenko, The Settlement of the Southern Ukraine, 1750-1775, special issue of AUAAS, IV-V (1955); Roger P. Bartlett, Human Capital: The Settlement of Foreigners in Russia, 1762-1804 (Cambridge 1980); and Alan W. Fisher, The Russian Annexation of the Crimea, 1772-1783 (Cambridge 1970). The varied career of Ukraine’s leading eighteenth-century intellectual is dealt with in a collection of essays edited by Richard H. Marshall, Jr., and Thomas E. Bird, Hryhorij Savyc Skovoroda: An Anthol­ogy of Critical Articles (Edmonton and Toronto 1994).

7. Ukraine in the Russian Empire, circa 1785-1914

There is a relatively solid literature in English on the socioeconomic status of Ukrainian lands within the Russian Empire. A general survey of agrarian condi­tions and early industrial development is provided by Konstantyn Kononenko, Ukraine and Russia: A History of the Economic Relations between Ukraine and Russia, 1654-1917 (Milwaukee 1958). Very useful, although more limited in chronologi­cal or territorial scope, are Daniel Beauvois, The Polish Nobility between Tsarist Impe­rialism and the Ukrainian Masses, 1831-1863 (New York 1992); Charters Wynn, Workers, Strikes, and Pogroms: The Donbass-Dnepr Bend in Late Imperial Russia, 1870­1905 (Princeton, N.J. 1992); and Robert Edelman, Proletarian Peasants: The Revolu­tion of 1905 in Russia’s Southwest [the Right Bank] (Ithaca and London 1987), esp. chapter 2.

There are also several essays on more specific topics: Robert E. Jones on the early nineteenth-century grain trade, Leonid Melnyk and Martin C. Spechler on industrial development and Patricia Herlihy on southern Ukraine in I. S. Koropeckyj, ed., Ukrainian Economic History: Interpretive Essays (Cambridge, Mass. 1991), pp. 210-227, 246-276, and 310-338; and Bohdan Krawchenko, ‘The Social Structure of Ukraine at the Turn of the 20th Century,’ East European Quarterly, XVI (Boulder, Colo. 1982), pp. 171-181. Unlike the historiography about women in other societies, which has been enriched in recent years by the advancements in women’s studies, the literature on women in Dnieper Ukraine in the nine­teenth century is limited to an introductory survey by Martha Bohachevsky- Chomiak, Feminists despite Themselves: Women in Ukrainian Community Life, 1884­1939 (Edmonton 1988), chapter 1; and an interpretive essay by Christine D. Worobec, ‘Temptress or Virgin? The Precarious Sexual Position of Women in Postemancipation Ukrainian Peasant Society,’ Slavic Review, XLIX, 2 (Austin 1990), PP· 227-238, reprinted in Beatrice Farnsworth and Lynne Viola, eds., Russian Peasant Women (New York 1992), pp. 41-53.

Particular attention has been given to urbanization, both in general studies: Boris P. Balan, ‘Urbanization and the Ukrainian Economy in the Mid-igth Cen­tury,’ in I.S. Koropeckyj, ed., Ukrainian Economic History (Cambridge, Mass. 1991), pp. 277-309; Patricia Herlihy, ‘Ukrainian Cities in the 19th Century,’ in Ivan L. Rudnytsky, ed., Rethinking Ukrainian History (Edmonton 1981), pp. 135^_155;

Roger L. Theide on New Russia [southern Ukraine] and Frederick W. Skinner on Odessa, in Michael Hamm, ed., The City in Russian History (Lexington, Ky. 1976), pp. 125-149; and in ‘biographies’ of three cities: Michael F. Hamm, Kiev: A Por­trait, 1800-1917 (Princeton, N.J. 1993); Patricia Herlihy, Odessa: A History, I794~ 1914 (Cambridge, Mass. 1986); and Theodore H. Friedgut, luzovka and Revolution: Life and Work / Politics and Revolution in Russia’s Donbass, 1869-1924, 2 vols. (Princeton, N.J. 1989-94).

There are numerous studies on some of Ukraine’s other peoples. These include a general survey by Alan Fisher, The Crimean Tatars (Stanford, Calif. 1978), esp. chapters 6-10 for the nineteenth century; and a portrait of the era’s leading Crimean national leader: idem, ‘Ismail Gaspirali, Model Leader for Asia,’ in Edward Allworth, ed., Tatars of the Crimea (Durham, N.C. and London 1988), pp. 11-26. Essays by Detlef Brandes and Andreas Kappeler deal with German settle­ment and relations with Ukrainians, in Hans-Joachim Torke and John-Paul Himka, eds., German-Ukrainian Relations in Historical Perspective (Edmonton and Toronto 1994), pp. 10-28 and 45-68; and David G. Rempel deals with the very last years of imperial rule in ‘The Expropriation of the German Colonists in South Russia during the Great War,’ Journal of Modern History, IV, 1 (Chicago 1932), pp. 49-67·

Much more attention has been given to the Jews in English-language works. Their economic and cultural relations with Poles and Russians in the Right Bank and Kiev are discussed by Daniel Beauvois, ‘Polish-Jewish Relations in the Territo­ries Annexed by the Russian Empire in the First Half of the 19th Century,’ in Chi­men Abramsky et al., eds., The Jews in Poland (Oxford 1986), pp. 78-90; and by John Doyle Klier, Imperial Russia’s Jewish Question, 1855-1881 (Cambridge 1995), esp. chapters 8-9. One community is detailed in Steven J. Zipperstein, The Jews of Odessa: A Cultural History, 1794-1881 (Stanford, Calif. 1985).

Two other topics have a rather extensive literature. The first concerns Jewish- Ukrainian political relations, as in the essays by Moshe Mishkinsky, Ivan L. Rud- nytsky, Roman Serbyn, and Yury Boshyk, in Peter J. Potichnyj and Howard Aster, eds., Ukrainian-Jewish Relations in Historical Perspective (Edmonton 1988), pp. 57­110 and 173-202; by Ivan L. Rudnytsky, ‘Mykhailo Drahomanov and the Problem of Ukrainian Jewish Relations,’ Canadian Slavonic Papers, XI, 2 (Ottawa 1969), pp. 182-198; by John D. Klier, ‘Kievlianin and the Jews: A Decade of Disillusionment, 1864-1873,’ HUS, N, 1 (1981), pp. 83-101; and by Olga Andriewsky, ‘Medved! iz ber- logi: Vladimir Jabotinsky and the Ukrainian Question, 1904-1914,’ HUS, XIV, 3-4 (1990), pp. 249-267. The second topic is the pogroms that occurred in the early 1880s and again during the first decade of the twentieth century: John D. Klier and Shlomo Lambroza, ed., Pogroms: Anti-Jewish Violence in Modem Russian History (Cambridge 1992), esp. chapters 3-5 and 8-9; J. Michael Aronson, ‘Geographical and Socio-economic Factors in the 1881 Anti-Jewish Pogroms in Russia,’ Russian Review, XXXIX, 1 (Cambridge, Mass. 1980), pp. 18-31; Omeljan Pritsak, ‘The Pogroms of 1881,’ HUS, XI, 1-2 (1987), pp. 8-43; and Erich Haberer, Jews and Revolution in Nineteenth-Century Russia (Cambridge 1995), esp. chapter 10. All aspects of the 1913 Beilis trial in Kiev are discussed in an eyewitness report by

Arnold D. Margolin, The Jews of Eastern Europe (New York 1926), pp. 155-247; and in studies by Maurice Samuel, Blood Accusation: The Strange History of the Beiliss Case (New York 1966); and Ezekiel Leikin, The Beilis Transcripts: The Anti-Semitic Trial That Shook the World (London 1993).

Notwithstanding their small size, it is the Mennonites who among Dnieper Ukraine’s other peoples have received extensive attention in English-language writings. The best introductions to the subject are David G. Rempel, ‘The Men- nonite Commonwealth in Russia: A Sketch of Its Founding and Endurance, 1789-1919,’ Mennonite Quarterly Review, XLVII, 4 (Goshen, Ind. 1973), pp. 259­308 and XLVIII, 1 (1974), pp. 5-54; the monumental 1911 compendium of Peter M. Friesen, The Mennonite Brotherhood in Russia, i/SQ-òäþ (Fresno, Calif, 1978); the synthetic history byJames Urry, None but Saints: The Transformation of Mennonite Life in Russia, 1789-1889 (Winnipeg 1989); articles by several authors on all aspects of Mennonite development in John Friesen, ed., Mennonites in Russia, 1788-1988 (Winnipeg 1989), pp. 11-259 (including a historiographical survey by Peter J. Klassen, pp. 339-363); and a detailed memoir about Mennonite life with a scholarly introduction that places the group within the larger imperial structure by Harvey L. Dyck, ed., A Mennonite in Russia: The Diaries of Jacob D. Epp, 1851-1880 (Toronto, Buffalo, and London 1991).

Individual Mennonite communities, in particular those in south-central Ukraine, are described in great detail in First Mennonite Villages in Russia, 1789- ^T943 (Vancouver 1981); and Heinrich Goerz, The Molotschna Settlement (Winnipeg 1993)· Shorter studies describe the community’s cultural life: John B. Toews, ‘Cul­tural and Intellectual Aspects of the Mennonite Experience in Russia,’ Mennonite Quarterly Review, LIII, 2 (Goshen, Ind. 1979), pp. 137-159, and David G. Rempel, ‘An Introduction to Russian Mennonite Historiography,’ ibid., XLVIII, 4 (1974), pp. 409-446; or its responses to the opportunities and restrictions of tsarist rule: James Urry, ‘Through the Eye of a Needle: Wealth and the Mennonite Experi­ence in Imperial Russia,’ Journal of Mennonite Studies, III (Winnipeg 1985), pp. 7­35; Harvey L. Dyck, ‘Russian Mennonitism and the Challenge of Russian National­ism, 1889,’ Mennonite Quarterly Review, LVI, 4 (Goshen, Ind. 1982), pp. 307-341; Leonard Friesen, ‘Mennonites in Russia and the Revolution of 1905,’ ibid., LXII, 1 (1988), pp. 42-55; and Helmut-Harry Loewen and James Urry, ‘Protecting Mam­mon: Some Dilemmas of Mennonite Non-Resistance in Late Imperial Russia and the Origins of the Selbstschutz,’ Journal of Mennonite Studies, IX (Winnipeg 1991), PP· 34^_53- The problem of the relations - or lack of them - between Mennonites and Ukrainians is addressed by G. K. Epp, ‘Mennonite-Ukrainian Relations, 1789­1945,’ ibid., VII (1989), pp. 131-144; and Leonard G. Friesen, ‘Mennonites and Their Peasant Neighbours in Ukraine before 1900,’ ibid., X (1992), pp. 56-69.

The Ukrainian nationality question, in particular its relationship to socioeco­nomic and ideological factors, has an extensive literature. A conceptual introduc­tion is provided by Paul Robert Magocsi, ‘The Ukrainian National Revival: A New Analytical Framework,’ Canadian Review of Studies in Nationalism, XVI, 1-2 (Char­lottetown, P.E.I. 1989), pp. 45-62. The manner in which the Ukrainian elites were absorbed into the Russian imperial social fabric while retaining a degree of regional/national distinctiveness is discussed in Zenon E. Kohut, Russian Centralism and Ukrainian Autonomy: Imperial Absorption of the Hetmanate, 1760 -1830s (Cam­bridge, Mass. 1988), esp. chapter 6; David Saunders, The Ukrainian Impact on Russian Culture, 1750-1850 (Edmonton 1985); Andreas Kappeler, ‘The Ukrainians of the Russian Empire, 1860-1914,’ in Andreas Kappeler, ed., The Formation of National Elites, Comparative Studies on Governments and Non-dominant Ethnic Groups in Europe, 1850-1940, Vol. VI (Aidershot 1992), pp. 105-132; and Stephen Vely- chenko, ‘Identities, Loyalties, and Service in Imperial Russia: Who Administered the Borderlands?’ Russian Review, LIV, 2 (Columbus, Ohio 1995), PP· 188-208. The attitude of the imperial government and its ‘use’ of the Ukrainian national move­ment during its early stages is treated by Orest Pelech, ‘The State and the Ukrainian Triumvirate in the Russian Empire, 1831-47,’ in Bohdan Krawchenko, ed., Ukrainian Past, Ukrainian Present (London and New York 1993), pp. 1-17. The practical manner in which Ukrainians were later able to function in the new poli­tical structures of the Russian Empire is discussed in Oleh W. Gerus, ‘The Ukrainian Question in the Russian Duma, 1906-1917: An Overview,’ in Studia Ucrainica, Vol. II (Ottawa 1984), pp. 157-174·

The use of history in the formulation of a Ukrainian national ideology is exam­ined from various points of view by Mykhailo S. Hrushevskyi, The Historical Evolu­tion of the Ukrainian Problem (Cleveland 1981); Natalia Polonska-Vasylenko, Two Conceptions of the History of Ukraine and Russia (London 1968); Omeljan Pritsak and John S. Reshetar, Jr., ‘The Ukraine and the Dialectics of Nationbuilding,’ Slavic Review, XXII, 2 (Seattle 1963), pp. 5-36, reprinted in Donald W. Treadgold, ed., The Development of the USSR (Seattle 1964), pp. 236-267; Ivan L. Rudnytsky and George G. Grabowicz, ‘Observations [and Further Observations] on the Problem of “Historical” and “Non-historical” Nations,’ HUS, V, 3 (1981), pp. 358-388; George G. Grabowicz, ‘Three Perspectives on the Cossack Past: Gogol', Sevcenko, Kulis,’ HUS, V, 2 (1981), pp. 171-194; and Stephen Velychenko, National History as Cultural Process (Edmonton 1992), esp. pt 3. For the dissenting Polish and Russian views that deny the very existence of a distinct Ukrainian polity, see ibid., pts. 1 and 2; and Pierre Bregy and Serge Obolensky, The Ukraine: A Russian Land (Lon­don 1940). A provocative variant of the Russian interpretation, in which ‘all­Russian’ culture is considered to be primarily Ukrainian in origin following the reforms of the leading ‘Ukrainianizer,’ Tsar Peter I, is argued by Nikolai Ser­geevich Trubetzkoy in ‘The Ukrainian Problem,’ in his The Legacy of Genghis Khan and Other Essays on Russia’s Identity (Ann Arbor, Mich, 1991), pp. 245-267.

A useful overview of the work of intellectuals in the Ukrainian national revival is provided by Ivan Rudnytsky, ‘The Intellectual Origins of Modern Ukraine,’ AUAAS, VI, 3-4 (1958), pp. 1381-1405, reprinted in Ivan L. Rudnytsky, Essays in Modem Ukrainian History (Edmonton 1987), pp. 123-141. The best introduction to intellectual currents and practical cultural work during the early stages of the national revival is George S.N. Luckyj, Between Gogol and Sevcenko: Polarity in the Literary Ukraine, 1798-1847 (Munich 1971). On the ideology and limited practical activity of Dnieper Ukraine’s first national organization, see Stefan Kozak, ‘On the Tradition of Cyril and Methodius in Ukraine,’JUS, XIII, 2 [13] (1988), pp. 29-51; and George S.N. Luckyj, Young Ukraine: The Brotherhood of Saints Cyril and Methodius in Kiev, 1845-1847 (Ottawa 1991).

The question of literary and broader intellectual relations with Russian and Polish culture and society are addressed by George G. Grabowicz, ‘Ukrainian-Rus­sian Literary Relations in the 19th Century: A Formulation of the Problem,’ in Peter J. Potichnyj et al., eds., Ukraine and Russia in Their Historical Encounter (Ed­monton 1992), pp. 214-244; and idem, ‘The History of Polish-Ukrainian Literary Relations: A Literary and Cultural Perspective,’ in Peter J. Potichnyj, ed., Poland and Ukraine: Past and Present (Edmonton and Toronto 1980), pp. 107-131.

Several of the leading national activists have biographies or substantive studies about them. Most attention has been given to Ukraine’s ‘national bard’: Volody­myr Mijakovs'kyj, ed., Taras Sevcenko, 1814-1861: A Symposium (The Hague 1962); George S.N. Luckyj, ed., Shevchenko and the Critics 1861-1980 (Toronto, Buffalo, and London 1980); George G. Grabowicz, The Poet as Mythmaker: A Study of Symbolic Meaning in Taras Sevcenko (Cambridge, Mass. 1982); and Pavlo Zaitsev, Taras Shevchenko: A Life (Toronto, Buffalo, and London 1988). There are also biogra­phies by George Luckyj, Panteleimon Kulish: A Sketch of His Life and Times (Boulder, Colo, and New York 1983), and Thomas M. Prymak, Mykola Kostomarov: A Biogra­phy (Toronto, Buffalo, and London 1996); and a collection of essays by various authors on Mykhailo Drahomanov in a special issue edited by Ivan L. Rudnytsky of the ALAAS, II, 1 (1952). Rudnytsky’s essay in this collection, ‘Drahomanov as a Political Theorist,’ is reprinted together with his ‘The First Ukrainian Political Program: Mykhailo Drahamanov’s “Introduction” to Hromada,’ in Ivan L. Rud­nytsky, Essays in Modem Ukrainian History (Edmonton 1987), pp. 203-282. Some of the key writings of these intellectual leaders are available in English, includ­ing several essays by Drahomanov in the special issue of the ALAAS, II, 1 (1952), pp. 141-218; and Nikolai Kostomarov, Books of Genesis of the Ukrainian People (New York 1954)·

The problem of governmental restrictions on the Ukrainian movement is dis­cussed in David Saunders, ‘Russia and Ukraine under Alexander II: The Valuev Edict of 1863,’ International History Review, XVII, 1 (Burnaby, B.C. 1995), pp. 23­50; Basil Dmytryshyn, ‘Introduction’ to Fedir Savchenko, Zaborona ukratnstva 18" 6r. / The Suppression of the Ukrainian Activities in 1876 (Munich 1970), pp. xv- xxix; George Y. Shevelov, The Ukrainian Language in the First Half of the Twentieth Century (1900-1941): Its State and Status (Cambridge, Mass. 1989), esp. chapters 2­3; and Stephen Velychenko, ‘Tsarist Censorship and Ukrainian Historiography, 1828-1906,’ Canadian-American Slavic Studies, XXIII, 4 (Bakersfield, Calif. 1989), PP· 385-408.

The attitudes of the Russian political and intellectual elite toward the Ukrainian movement are discussed by David Saunders, ‘Russia’s Ukrainian Policy (1847­1905): A Demographic Approach,’ European History Quarterly, XXV, 2 (London 1995), PP· 181-208; by idem, ‘Contemporary Critics of Gogol’s Vechera and the Debate about Russian narodnost', 1831-1832,’ HUS, N, 1 (1981), pp. 66-82; by Thomas M. Prymak, ‘Herzen on Poland and Ukraine,’ JUS, VII, 1 [12] (1982), pp. 31-40; by Stephen Horak, ‘Alexander Herzen, Poles, and Ukrainians: A Dilemma in Unity and Conflict,’ East European Quarterly, XVII (Boulder, Colo. 1983), pp. 185­212; by Alexis E. Pogorelskin, ‘A.N. Pypin’s Defense of Ukraine: Sources and Moti­vation,’ in Bohdan Krawchenko, ed., Ukrainian Past, Ukrainian Present (London and New York 1993), pp. 35-54; and by Richard Pipes, ‘Peter Struve and Ukrainian Nationalism,’ HUS, III-IV (1979-80), pp. 675-683. Also of interest are the memoirs of one of Kiev’s leading opponents of the Ukrainian movement: V.V. Shulgin, The Years: Memoirs of a Member of the Russian Duma, igo6-igi7 (New York 1984).

8. Ukraine in the Austrian Empire, circa 1772-1914

The literature on Ukrainian developments in the Austrian Empire during the late eighteenth and the nineteenth centuries is differentiated according to the three regions where Ukrainians formed a majority population: eastern Galicia, north­ern Bukovina, and Transcarpathia. By far most of the material deals with the larg­est of these regions, Galicia. Still useful as a general introduction, with emphasis on politics and the nationality movement, is Ivan L. Rudnytsky, ‘The Ukrainians in Galicia under Austrian Rule,’ Austrian History Yearbook, III, pt. 2 (Houston 1967), pp. 394-429, reprinted in a revised version in Andrei S. Markovits and Frank E. Sysyn, eds., Nationbuilding and the Politics of Nationalism: Essays on Austrian Galicia (Cambridge, Mass. 1982), pp. 23-93, and in Ivan L. Rudnytsky, Essays in Modem History (Edmonton 1987), pp. 315-352.

Of the studies available on Galicia’s socioeconomic status, the best general introduction is found in the chapters by Francis Bujak, John Rozwadowski et al. in the Polish Encyclopedia, Vol. Ill: Economic Life of Poland (Geneva 1922), pp. 237-361. A focus on Ukrainian-inhabited eastern Galicia, in particular during the second half of the nineteenth century, is found in an introductory outline by John-Paul Himka, ‘The Background to Emigration: Ukrainians of Galicia and Bukovina, 1848-1914,’ in Manoly R. Lupul, ed., A Heritage in Transition (Toronto 1982), pp. 11-31. The status of the peasantry is the subject of several studies. John-Paul Himka, ‘Serfdom in Galicia,’ JUS, IX, 2 (1984), pp. 3-28, emphasizes the long­term negative impact of serfdom even after it was abolished in 1848. A revisionist view, which argues that at least in some regions the economic outlook for peas­ants was steadily improving, is presented in a microeconomic analysis by Stella Hryniuk, Peasants with Promise: Ukrainians in Southeastern Galicia, 1880-igoo (Ed­monton 1991); and in a more interpretive essay by Hryniuk, ‘Polish Lords and Ukrainian Peasants: Conflict, Deference, and Accomodation in Eastern Galicia in the Late Nineteenth Century,’ Austrian History Yearbook, XXIV (Minneapolis 1993), pp. 119-132. Cottage industry is given extensive coverage in an essay by Richard L. Rudolph, ‘The East European Peasant Household and the Beginnings of Industry: East Galicia, 1786-1914,’ in I.S. Koropeckyj, ed., Ukrainian Economic History: Interpretive Essays (Cambridge, Mass. 1991), pp. 339-382. Of particular value for understanding the administrative and governmental structures as well as the basic economic elements (weights, measures, currency) is John-Paul Himka, Galicia and Bukovina: A Research Handbook about Western Ukraine, Late igth and 20th Centuries, Historic Sites Service Occasional Paper, No. 20 (Edmonton 1990).

There is a rather substantive literature on the Ukrainian nationality question in Galicia. The most comprehensive study on the earlier period, including events during the 1848 revolution, is Jan Kozik, The Ukrainian National Movement in Gali­cia, 1815-1849 (Edmonton 1986). There are also a short narrative of the revolu­tionary year by Martha Bohachevsky-Chomiak, The Spring of the Nation: The Ukrainians of Eastern Galicia in 1848 (Philadelphia 1967); an interpretive essay on the second half of the century by laroslav Isaievych, ‘Galicia and Problems of National Identity,’ in Ritchie Robertson and Edward Timms, eds., The Habsburg Legacy: National Identity in Historical Perspective (Edinburgh 1994), pp. 37-45; and a discussion of the first proposals for Ukrainian independence by John-Paul Himka, ‘Young Radicals and Independent Statehood: The Idea of a Ukrainian Nation­State, 1890-1895,’ Slavic Review, XLI, 2 (Urbana, Ill. 1982), pp. 219-235.

The manner in which national identity was understood by various factions of the Galician-Ukrainian intelligentsia and the population at large is dealt with in studies by Paul Robert Magocsi, ‘Old Ruthenianism and Russophilism: A New Conceptual Framework for Analyzing National Ideologies in Late 19th Century Eastern Galicia,’ in Paul Debreczyn, ed., American Contributions to the Ninth Interna­tional Congress ofSlavists, Vol. II (Columbus, Ohio 1983), pp. 305-324; by Peter Brock, ‘Ivan Vahylevych (1811-1866) and the Ukrainian National Identity,’ Cana­dian Slavonic Papers, XIV, 2 (Ottawa 1972), pp. 153-190, reprinted in Markovits and Sysyn, Nationbuilding, pp. 111-148; by Ivan L. Rudnytsky, ‘Hipolit Vladimir Terlecki,’ in Rudnytsky, Essays, pp. 143-172; by John-Paul Himka, ‘Hope in the Tsar: Displaced Naive Monarchism among the Ukrainian Peasants of the Habs­burg Empire,’ Russian History, VI, 1-2 (Tempe, Ariz. 1980), pp. 125-138; and by idem, Socialism in Galicia: The Emergence of Polish Social Democracy and Ukrainian Rad­icalism, 1860-1890 (Cambridge, Mass. 1983).

John-Paul Himka describes in several studies the actual mechanisms by which nationalist ideologies were disseminated among the rural population: Galician Vil­lagers and the Ukrainian National Movement in the Nineteenth Century (Edmonton 1988); ‘Voluntary Artisan Associations and the Ukrainian National Movement in Galicia (1870s),’ in Markovits and Sysyn, Nationbuilding, pp. 178-195; ‘Priests and Peasants: The Greek Catholic Pastor and the Ukrainian National Movement in Austria, 1867-1900,’ Canadian Slavonic Papers, XXI, 1 (Ottawa 1979), pp. 1-14; ‘The Greek Catholic Church and Nation-Building in Galicia, 1772-1918,’ HUS, VIII, 3-4 (1984), pp. 426-452; and ‘Sheptyts'kyi and the Ukrainian National Movement before 1914,’ in Paul Robert Magocsi, ed., Morality and Reality: The Life and Times of Andrei Sheptyts'kyi (Edmonton 1989), pp. 29-46.

Other cultural and organizational mechanisms for Galician-Ukrainian nation­ality-building are described in three studies by Paul Robert Magocsi: ‘The Lan­guage Question as a Factor in the National Movement in Eastern Galicia,’ in Markovits and Sysyn, Nationbuilding, pp. 220-238; ‘Nationalism and National Bibli­ography: Ivan E. Levyts'kyi and 19th-Century Galicia,’ Harvard Library Bulletin, XXVIII, 1 (Cambridge, Mass. 1980), pp. 81-109; ‘The Kachkovs'kyi Society and the National Revival in 19th-Century East Galicia,’ HUS, XV, 1-2 (1991), pp. 48­87; and in studies by Martha Bohachevsky-Chomiak, Feminists despite Themselves: Women in Ukrainian Community Life, 1884-1939 (Edmonton 1988), esp. chapters 5­9; Ann Sirka, The Nationality Question in Austrian Education: The Case of Ukrainians in Galicia, 1867-1914 (Frankfurt-am-Main 1980); Stephen M. Horak, ‘The Shevchenko Scientific Society, 1873-1973,’ East European Quarterly, VII, 3 (Boul­der, Colo. 1973), pp. 249-264; and Virlana Tkacz, ‘The Birth of a Director: The Early Development of Les Kurbas and His First Season with the Young Theatre,’ JUS, XII, 1 (1987), pp. 22-54. The achievements of the Ukrainian national move­ment in practical politics are described in three articles by Theodore Bohdan Ciuciura: ‘Ukrainian Deputies in the Old Austrian Parliament, 1861-1918,’ Mitteilungen, XIV (Munich 1977), pp. 38-56; ‘Galicia and Bukovina as Austrian Crown Provinces: Ukrainian Experience in Representative Institutions, 1861­1918,’ Studia Ucrainica, Vol. II (Ottawa 1984), pp. 175-195; and ‘Provincial Politics in the Habsburg Empire: The Case of Galicia and Bukovyna,’ Nationalities Papers, XIII, 2 (North York, Ont. 1985), pp. 247-273.

Among the other peoples of eastern Galicia, only the Jews have a literature on them in English. The intellectual currents during the first half century of Austrian rule are described in Raphael Mahler, Hasidism and the Jewish Enlightenment (Phila­delphia, New York, and Jerusalem 1985), esp. chapters 1-6. The problems of iden­tity, economic status, and political activism during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries are the subject of articles by Piotr Wrobel, ‘The Jews of Galicia under Austrian-Polish Rule, 1869-1918,’ Austrian History Yearbook, XXV (Minne­apolis 1994), pp. 97-138; by Ezra Mendelsohn, ‘Jewish Assimilation in Lvov: The Case ofWilhelm Feldman,’ Slavic Review, XXVIII (Seattle 1969), pp. 577-590, reprinted in Markovits and Sysyn, Nationbuilding, pp. 94-110; by Raphael Mahler, ‘The Economic Background of Jewish Emigration from Galicia to the United States,’ YTVO Annual of Jewish Social Science, VIII (New York 1952), pp. 255-267; by Jacob Bross, ‘The Beginnings of the Jewish Labor Movement in Galicia,’ ibid., V (195°), PP· 55-84; and by Leila P. Everett, ‘The Rise of Jewish National Politics in Galicia, 1905-1907,’ in Markovits and Sysyn, Nationbuilding, pp. 149-177.

The literature on developments among Ukrainians in northern Bukovina is very limited. Aside from the handbook by Himka and studies on Austrian parlia­mentary life by Ciuciura mentioned above, in which Bukovina is discussed along with Galicia, a popular description of national life is provided in the first part of I. M. Nowosiwsky, Bukovinian Ukrainians: A Historical Background and Their Self­Determination in 1918 (New York 1970), esp. pp. 23-89. A non-Ukrainian view of the last decades before World War I is provided in the section on Bukovina in the reliable work of Keith Hitchins, Rumania, 1866-1917 (Oxford, 1994), pp. 231-239. For Transcarpathia, see Paul Robert Magocsi, The Shaping of a National Identity: Subcarpathian Rus', 1848-1948 (Cambridge, Mass. 1978), esp. chapters 2-3.

9. World War I, revolution, and civil war

The impact of military campaigns during the early years of the war, especially in Galicia, is covered in some detail in Norman Stone, The Eastern Front, 1914-1917 (New York 1975), esp. chapters 4-6 and 11. There are much more substantive studies of the German, Allied (French), and White Russian presence in eastern and southern Ukraine, although the concern in these works is more with the dip­lomatic and political role of the foreign armies than with their military activity: Oleh S. Fedyshyn, Germany’s Drive to the East and the Ukrainian Revolution, igry- 1918 (New Brunswick, N.J. 1971); George A. Brinkley, The Volunteer Army and the Allied Intervention in South Russia, 1917-1921 (Notre Dame, Ind. 1966); Peter Kenez, Civil War in South Russia, 1918: The First Year of the Volunteer Army (Berkeley, Calif. 1971); idem, Civil War in South Russia, 1919-1920: The Defeat of the Whites (Berkeley, Calif. 1977); and Anna Procyk, Russian Nationalism and Ukraine: The Nationality Policy of the Volunteer Army during the Civil War (Edmonton and Toronto 1995)·

The best introduction to the Ukrainian revolutionary period as a whole remains John S. Reshetar, Jr., The Ukrainian Revolution, 1917-1920 (Princeton, N.J. 1952; reprinted New York 1972). Less satisfactory are Isidore Nahayewsky, History of the Modem Ukrainian State, 1917-1923 (Munich 1966); and Matthew Stachiw, Peter G. Stercho, and Nicholas L.F. Chirovskyy, Ukraine and the European Turmoil, 1917-1919, 2 vols. (New York 1973). Quite useful is a collection of essays on vari­ous aspects of the entire era, Taras Hunczak, ed., The Ukraine, 1917-1921: A Study in Revolution (Cambridge, Mass. 1977). Whereas this volume omits developments in western Ukraine, it does include translations of the Ukrainian government’s four universals. There are two substantive monographs on the revolution during its first two years, one written from the perspective of a professional historian and participant as minister of foreign affairs in the Helmanate government: Dmytro Doroshenko, History of Ukraine, 1917-1923, Vol. II: The Hetmanate (Winnipeg, Tor­onto, and Detroit 1973); and the other from the perspective of a patriotic emigre: Oleh Semenovych Pidhainy, The Formation of the Ukrainian Republic (Toronto and New York 1966). The influential role of the first head of the Central Rada is out­lined in an impartial biography by Thomas M. Prymak, Mykhailo Hrushevsky: The Politics of National Culture (Toronto, Buffalo, and London 1987), esp. chapters 6-8. The clauses dealing with Ukraine in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk are translated into English in Texts of the Ukraine ‘Peace’, ed. Paul R. Magocsi, 2nd ed. (Cleveland

1981) ; and the treaty’s significance is analyzed by Stephan M. Horak, The First Treaty of World War I: Ukraine’s Treaty with the Central Powers of February 9, 1918 (Boulder, Colo. 1988). Finally, the attempt by Symon Peliura to save the Ukrain­ian National Republic by allying with the new state of Poland is covered in great detail by Michael Palij, The Ukrainian-Polish Defensive Alliance, 1919-1921 (Edmon­ton and Toronto 1995).

There is much less literature on western Ukrainian lands during the revolu­tionary years. Eastern Galicia figures prominently in the patriotic version of events as described by Matthew Stachiw and Jaroslaw Sztendera, Western Ukraine at the Turning Point of Europe’s History, 1918-1923, 2 vols. (New York 1969-71). The Pol­ish perspective on the war with Ukrainians for control of Galicia is presented in Rosa Bailly, A City Fights for Freedom: The Rising of Lwow in 1918-1919 (London 1956); and the attempts of the Ukrainians to reach an accommodation with the Jews is reviewed in great detail by Nahum Michael Gelber, ‘The National Auton­omy of Eastern Galician Jewry in the West Ukrainian Republic, 1918-1919,’ in Isaac Lewin, A History of Polish Jewry during the Revival of Poland (New York 199°) > pp. 221-326. The little-known diplomatic background to Romania’s eventual annexation of Bukovina is described in Leonid C. Sonevytsky, ‘Bukovina in the Diplomatic Negotiations of 1914,’ AUAAS, VII, 1-2 (1959), pp. 1586-1629. For Bukovina’s role in the Ukrainian revolution and the Romanian annexation, see I.M. Nowosiwsky, Bukovinian Ukrainians: A Historical Background and Their Self-Deter­mination in 1918 (New York 1970). The Romanian understanding of these events is provided by Ion I. Nistor, The Union of Bucovina with Romania (Bucharest 1940). The rather unique developments in Transcarpathia are given detailed attention in two articles by Paul R. Magocsi, ‘The Political Activity of Rusyn-American Immi­grants in 1918,’ East European Quarterly, X, 3 (Boulder, Colo. 1976), pp. 347-365; and ‘The Ruthenian Decision to Unite with Czechoslovakia,’ Slavic Review, XXXIV, 2 (Seattle 1975), pp. 360-381.

A few aspects of the revolutionary era have received particular attention. The sociodemographic structure of Ukrainian territory is analyzed by Steven L. Guthier, ‘The Popular Base of Ukrainian Nationalism in 1917,’ Slavic Review, XXXVIII, 1 (Columbus, Ohio 1979), pp. 30-47; Bohdan Krawchenko, ‘The Social Structure of the Ukraine in 1917,’ HUS, XIV, 1-2 (1990), pp. 97-112; and Rudolf A. Mark, ‘Social Questions and National Revolution: The Ukrainian National Republic in 1919-1920,’ ibid., pp. 113-131. The impact of events on the Donbas are covered in great detail in Theodore H. Friedgut, luzovka and Revolution, Vol. II: Politics and Revolution in Russia’s Donbass, 1869-1924 (Princeton, N.J. 1994), esp. chapters 8-10. The reaction of the rural masses to the various governments that claimed to represent them is surveyed by Vsevolod Holubnychy, ‘The 1917 Agrar­ian Revolution in Ukraine,’ in Selected Works of Vsevolod Holubnychy (Edmonton

1982), pp. 3-65; and by Arthur E. Adams, ‘The Great Ukrainian Jacquerie,’ in Hunczak, Ukraine, 1917-1921, pp. 247-270. The leader who was most successful in mobilizing peasant discontent is the subject of no fewer than five monographic studies: Peter Arshinov, A History of the Makhnovist Movement, 1918-1921 (Detroit 1974); Michael Malet, Nestor Makhno in the Russian Civil War (London 1982); Michael Palij, The Anarchism of Nestor Makhno, 1918-1921 (Seattle and London 1976); Victor Peters, Nestor Makhno: The Life of an Anarchist (Winnipeg 1970); and Frank Sysyn, ‘Nestor Makhno and the Ukrainian Revolution,’ in Hunczak, Ukraine, 1917-1921, pp. 271-304.

The attempts to create a national Orthodox church are surveyed in several essays by Bohdan Bociurkiw, ‘The Church and the Ukrainian Revolution: The Central Rada Period,’ in Hunczak, Ukraine, 1917-1921, pp. 220-246; ‘The Issues of Ukrainianization and Autocephaly of the Orthodox Church in Ukrainian-Rus­sian Relations, 1917-1921,’ in Peter J. Potichnyj et al., eds., Ukraine and Russia in Their Historical Encounter (Edmonton 1992), pp. 245-273; and ‘The Rise of the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church, 1919-22,’ in Geoffrey A. Hosking, ed., Church, Nation, and State in Russia and Ukraine (Edmonton 1990), pp. 228-249.

The diplomatic interest of the Allied Powers was surveyed as early as 1921 by a former Ukrainian government official of non-Ukrainian background: Arnold Margolin, Ukraine and Policy of the Entente, 2nd ed. (n.p. 1977). Much of his mem­oir also deals with events in Ukraine during the revolutionary era: Arnold Mar­golin, From a Political Diary: Russia, Ukraine, and America, 1905-1945 (New York 1946). Specific aspects of the various Allied Powers have subsequently been stud­ied by George A. Brinkley, ‘Allied Policy and French Intervention in the Ukraine, 1917-1920,’ in Hunczak, Ukraine, 1917-1921, pp. 323-351; by Constantine War- variv, ‘America and the Ukrainian National Cause, 1917-1920,’ ibid., pp. 352-381; and by David Saunders, ‘Britain and the Ukrainian Question, 1912-1920,’ English Historical Review, CIII, 1 (London 1988), pp. 40-68.

The various attempts of the Bolsheviks to establish a regime in Ukraine are also the subject of several studies. The developments in Ukraine as they relate to the larger context of other lands in the former Russian Empire are surveyed in Rich­ard Pipes, The Formation of the Soviet Union: Communism and Nationalism, 1917-1925, 2nd rev. ed. (New York 1968), esp. chapters 1-3. More detail is provided by Arthur E. Adams, Bolsheviks in the Ukraine: The Second Campaign, 1918-1919 (New Haven and London 1963); byjurij Borys, The Sovietization of Ukraine, 1917-1925, 2nd rev. ed. (Edmonton 1980); and, in a memoiristic account, by two Bolshevik supporters of Ukrainian national communism, Serhii Mazlakh and Vasyl' Shakhrai, On the Current Situation in the Ukraine (Ann Arbor, Mich. 1970).

The general legal status of minorities is outlined by George Liber, ‘Ukrainian Nationalism and the 1918 Law on National-Personal Autonomy,’ Nationalities Papers, XV, 1 (New York 1987), pp. 22-42. The status specifically of Jews has been given particular attention in a collection of government documents and other contemporary materials in F. Pigido, ed., Material Concerning Ukrainian-fewish Rela­tions during the Years of the Revolution, 1917-1921 (Munich 1956); and in two studies by Jewish members of the Ukrainian government: Solomon I. Goldelman, fewish National Autonomy in Ukraine, 1917-1920 (Chicago 1968); and Moses Silberfarb, The Jewish Ministry and Jewish National Autonomy in Ukraine (New York 1993); as well as.in interpretive analyses by latter-day historians: Joseph Schechtman, Jewish Community Life in the Ukraine, 1917-1919,’ in Gregor Aronson et al., eds., Rus­sian Jewry, 1917-1967 (New York, South Brunswick, NJ., and London 1969), pp. 39-57; Henry Abramson, Jewish Representation in the Independent Ukrainian Governments of 1917-1920,’ Slavic Review, L, 3 (Stanford, Calif. 1991), pp. 542­550; Mattityahu Mine, ‘Kiev Zionists and the Ukrainian National Movement,’ and Jonathan Frankel, ‘The Dilemmas of Jewish Autonomism: The Case of Ukraine, 1917-1920,’ in Peter J. Potichnyj and Howard Aster, eds., Ukrainian-Jewish Relations in Historical Perspective (Edmonton 1988), pp. 247-280; and M. Mintz, ‘The Secre­tariat of Internationality Affairs (Sekretariat mizhnatsional' nykh sprav) of the Ukrainian General Secretariat, 1917-1918,’ HUS, VI, 1 (1982), pp. 25-42.

The pogroms have received even more attention in the literature. A useful introduction to the controversy regarding their extent and the responsibility of the Ukrainian government is provided by Henry Abramson, ‘Historiography on the Jews and the Ukrainian Revolution,’JUS, XV, 2 (1990), pp. 33-45. Some of the published material contains contemporary reports or analyses of concrete statisti­cal data: Elias Heifetz, The Slaughter of the Jews in the Ukraine in 1919 (New York

1921); Arnold D. Margolin, The Jews of Eastern Europe (New York 1926), esp. pp. 126-152; L. Motzkin, ed., The Pogroms in the Ukraine igi/~ig20 under the Ukrainian Governments: A Historical Survey (London 1927); N. Gergel, ‘The Pogroms in the Ukraine in 1918—21,’ YIVO Annual of Jewish Social Science, Vol. VI (New York 1951), pp. 237-252; and Peter Kenez, ‘Pogroms and White Ideology in the Russian Civil War,’ in John D. Klier and Shlomo Lambroza, eds., Pogroms: Antijewish Violence in Modern Russian History (Cambridge 1992), pp. 293-313. Other material is more polemical in nature, focusing on the Directory leader Symon Petliura and the question of his guilt or innocence with regard to the pogroms: Saul S. Friedman, Pogromchik (New York 1976); Taras Hunczak, ‘A Reappraisal of Simon Petliura and Jewish-Ukrainian Relations, 1917-1921’; and Zosa Szajkowski, ‘A Rebuttal,’ Jewish Social Studies, XXXI (New York 1969), pp. 163-213. On Petliura’s role in general during the Ukrainian revolution, see the positive assessments of Alain Deroches, The Ukrainian Problem and Symon Petliura (Chicago 1970); and Borys Martchenko, Simon Petlura (Paris 1976).

Like the Jews, the Mennonites view the revolutionary and civil war years as one of the most tragic periods in their history. The dilemmas faced by a community that practices non-violence but is faced with civil war conditions is discussed by John B. Toews, ‘The Origins and Activities of the Mennonite Selbstschutz in the Ukraine, 1918-1919,’ Mennonite Quarterly Review, XLVI, 1 (Goshen, Ind. 1972), pp. 5-40. There are also two memoirs from the period: Dietrich Neufeld, A Russian Dance of Death: Revolution and Civil War in the Ukraine (Winnipeg 1977); and a pop­ular study of a specific community by Gerhard Lorenz, Fire over Zagradovka (Stein­bach, Man. 1983). The effort of the Crimean Tatars toward their own national liberation is described by Alan Fisher, The Crimean Tatars (Stanford, Calif. 1978), pp. 109-129.

10. The interwar years

The literature on the interwar years of the twentieth century, like that on the nineteenth century, is basically divided between works dealing with eastern, by then Soviet, Ukraine and works dealing with the individual western Ukrainian lands of Galicia, Bukovina, and Transcarpathia. Several monographs are available that cover the entire interwar period or a portion of it in Soviet Ukraine. Bohdan Krawchenko, Social Change and National Consciousness in Twentieth-Century Ukraine (New York 1985), esp. chapters 2-3; and George O. Liber, Soviet Nationality Policy, Urban Growth, and Identity Change in the Ukrainian SSR ig23~ig34 (Cambridge and New York 1992) concentrate on analyzing the available statistical data on demo­graphic trends, Communist party membership, and state-driven cultural and edu­cational activity. Basil Dmytryshyn, Moscow and the Ukraine igi8-ig53 (New York 1956); Robert S. Sullivant, Soviet Politics and the Ukraine, igif-igsT' (New York and London 1962), esp. chapters 3-5; and James E. Mace, Communism and the Dilemmas of National Liberation: National Communism in Soviet Ukraine, igi8-ig33 (Cam­bridge, Mass. 1983) are concerned with Bolshevik administrative policy and the ideological response of the defenders of Ukrainian particularism. A history of the party itself during the interwar years is provided by Vsevolod Holubnychy, ‘Out­line History of the Communist Party of Ukraine,’ in Selected Works of Vsevolod Holubnychy, ed. Iwan S. Koropeckyj (Edmonton 1982), pp. 66-137. The abortive efforts by non-Bolshevik Marxists to gain political power are surveyed by Iwan Majstrenko, Borotbism: A Chapter in the History of Ukrainian Communism (New York 1954) J and the ongoing post-civil war military resistance to Soviet rule is discussed by Bohdan Nahaylo, ‘Ukrainian National Resistance in Soviet Ukraine during the 1920s,’ JUS, XV, 2 (1990), pp. 1-18. Some of the writings of an early Bolshevik gov­ernment leader in Ukraine and defender of federalism in the Soviet Union have been translated: Christian Rakovsky, Selected Writings on Opposition in the USSR, 1923-1930 (London and New York 1980).

Developments during the NEP period and under the new command economy are discussed by Bohdan Somchynsky, ‘National Communism and the Politics of Industrialization in Ukraine, 1923-1928,’JUS, XIII, 2 [25] (1988), pp. 52-69; by I.S. Koropeckyj, Location Problems in Soviet Industry before World War II: The Case of the Ukraine (Chapel Hill, N.C. 1971); by Bohdan Krawchenko, ‘The Impact of Indus­trialization on the Social Structure of Ukraine,’ Canadian Slavonic Papers, XXII, 3 (Ottawa 1980), pp. 338-357; by Steven L. Guthier, ‘Ukrainian Cities during the Revolution and the Interwar Era,’ in Ivan L. Rudnytsky, ed., Rethinking Ukrainian History (Edmonton 1981), pp. 156-179; by Theodore H. Friedgut, luzovka and Rev­olution, Vol. II: Politics and Revolution in Russia’s Donbass, 1869-1924 (Princeton, NJ. 1994), esp. chapters n-12; and by Vsevolod Holubnychy, ‘On the Rationale of the Soviet Collectivization of Agriculture in 1929,’ AUAAS, IX, 1-2 (1961), pp. 75-109·

The human cost of the radical political and socioeconomic changes put in place by the Bolshevik/Soviet regime, especially the suffering inflicted on the rural population, has received particular attention. The first crisis of the early 1920s is the subject of several articles: Kazuo Nakai, ‘Soviet Agricultural Policies in the Ukraine and the 1921-1922 Famine,’ HUS, VI, (1982), pp. 43-61; Wasyl Veryha, ‘Famine in Ukraine in 1921-1923 and the Soviet Government’s Counter­measures,’ Nationalities Papers, XII, 2 (Charleston, Ill. 1984), pp. 265-286; Roman Serbyn, ‘The Famine of 1921-1923: A Model for 1932-1933?’ in Roman Serbyn and Bohdan Krawchenko, eds., Famine in Ukraine, 1932-1933 (Edmonton 1986), pp. 147-178; and of an earlier, more general monograph by H.H. Fisher, The Famine in Soviet Russia, 1919-1923 (Stanford and London 1935).

It is the famine of 1932-1933, however, which has the most extensive literature. Some authors suggest that the tragedy was a natural disaster or the result of bureaucratic bungling; others argue that it was artificially created by the Soviet government in an effort to punish all peasants opposed to collectivization; still others maintain that it was an act of genocide directed specifically against Ukraini­ans. The first serious study of the subject was published as early as 1936 by a for­eign observer and eyewitness: Ewald Ammende, Human Life in Russia, 2nd ed. (Cleveland 1984). It was followed by the publication of eyewitness accounts and documents: S.O. Pidhainy, V.I. Hryshko, and P.P. Pavlovych, eds., The Black Deeds of the Kremlin: A White Book, Vol. II: The Great Famine in Ukraine in 1932-1933

(Toronto and Detroit 1955); D. Solovey, ed., The Golgotha of Ukraine: Eyewitness Accounts of the Famine in Ukraine (New York 1953); and of a scholarly analysis: Dana Dalrymple, ‘The Soviet Famine of 1932-1934,’ Soviet Studies, XV, 3 (London 1964), pp. 250-284.

But it was in conjunction with the fiftieth anniversary of the famine in 1983 that Ukrainianists in the West began to publish an exceedingly wide range of works on the subject. These include an extensive historiographical survey of all published sources on the subject by James Mace, in Report to [the fZ.S'.] Congress: Commission on the Ukraine Famine (Washington, D.C. 1988), pp. 1-133, which forms the preface to a translation of select oral histories of eyewitnesses and of foreign diplomatic and consular dispatches from Ukraine during the early 1930s, ibid., pp. 237-523. Another volume of sources deals with the reaction of western powers: Marco Carynnyk, Lubomyr Y. Luciuk, and Bohdan S. Kordan, eds., The Foreign Office and the Famine: British Documents on Ukraine and the Great Famine of 1932-1933 (Kings­ton, Ont. and Vestal, N.Y. 1988). Of the many recently published eyewitness accounts, particularly insightful are Wasyl Hryshko, The Ukrainian Holocaust of 1933 (Toronto 1983); and Olexa Woropay, The Ninth Circle (Cambridge, Mass.

1983). The best scholarly studies are a monograph by Robert Conquest, The Har­vest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine (New York and Toronto 1986); an essay by James E. Mace, ‘The Famine of 1932-1933: A Watershed in the History of Soviet Nationality Policy,’ in Henry R. Huttenbach, ed., Soviet National­ity Policies: Ruling Ethnic Groups in the USSR (London 1990), pp. 177-205; and a col­lection of essays, Roman Serbyn and Bohdan Krawchenko, eds., Famine in Ukraine, 1932-1933 (Edmonton 1986). There are as well several articles that debate con­flicting interpretations of what until recently were limited statistical data: Steven Rosefielde, ‘Excess Collectivization Deaths, 1929-1933: New Demographic Evi­dence,’ Slavic Review, XLIII, 1 (Stanford, Calif. 1984), pp. 83-88, with subsequent commentary and rejoinders by Stephen G. Wheatcroft, Steven S. Rosefielde, Bar­bara A. Anderson, and Brian D. Silver, ibid., XLTV, 3 (1985), pp. 505-536; Mark B. Tauger, ‘The 1932 Harvest and Famine of 1933,’ ibid., L, 1 (1991), pp. 70-89; Ser- hii Pirozhkov, ‘Population Loss in Ukraine in the 1930s and 1940s,’ in Bohdan Krawchenko, ed., Ukrainian Past, Ukrainian Present (London and New York 1993), pp. 84-96; and R.W. Davies, M.B. Tauger, and S.G. Wheatcroft, ‘Stalin, Grain Stocks and the Famine of 1932-1933’, Slavic Review, LIV, 3 (Cambridge, Mass. 1995), pp· 642-657·

The Soviet experiment with Ukrainianization, in particular as it affected liter­ary and intellectual currents, is treated systematically by George S.N. Luckyj, Liter­ary Politics in the Soviet Ukraine, 1917-1934, 2nd rev. ed. (Durham, N.C. and London 1990); and Myroslav Shkandrij, Modernists, Marxists and the Nation: The Ukrainian Literary Discussion of the 1920s (Edmonton 1992). The impact of subse­quent changes in Soviet policy are traced in a monograph by Hryhory Kostiuk, Stalinist Rule in the Ukraine: A Study of a Decade of Terror, 1929-1939 (New York i960); in a collection of 234 biographies of purged intellectuals by Borys Levytsky, The Stalinist Terror in the Thirties: Documentation from the Soviet Press (Stanford, Calif. 1974); and in eyewitness recollections compiled by S.O. Pidhainy, ed., The Black Deeds of the Kremlin, Vol. I: Book of Testimonies (Toronto and Detroit 1953). Several essays by a leading intellectual from the period have been translated into English: Mykola Khvylovy, The Cultural Renaissance in Ukraine: Polemical Pamphlets, 1925­1926 (Edmonton 1986); and there are a critical biography and a collection of arti­cles devoted to Ukraine’s influential practitioner of what was then the newest form of art and propaganda - film: Vance Kepley, Jr., In the Service of the State: The Cinema of Alexander Dovzhenko (Madison, Wis. 1986); and Bohdan Y. Nebesio, ed., The Cinema of Alexander Dovzhenko, special issue of JUS, XIX, 1 (1994).

Statistical data on the concrete mechanisms of cultural production are out­lined by George O. Liber, ‘Language, Literacy, and Book Publishing in the Ukrainian SSR, 1923-1928,’ Slavic Review, XLI, 4 (Stanford, Calif. 1982), pp. 673­685. More attention is given to the use of language as an instrument of national development or repression in George Y. Shevelov, The Ukrainian Language in the First Half of the Twentieth Century (1900—1914): Its State and Status (Cambridge, Mass. 1989), esp. chapters 4-7; and Roman Solchanyk, ‘Language Politics in the Ukraine,’ in Isabelle T. Kreindler, ed., Sociolinguistic Perspectives on Soviet National Languages (Berlin, New York, and Amsterdam 1985), esp. pp. 57-73.

There are a few studies on the impact of Soviet policies on other peoples in interwar Soviet Ukraine. Aspects of the Jewish experience are covered by Mor­dechai Altschuler, ‘Ukrainian-Jewish Relations in the Soviet Milieu in the Interwar Period,’ in Peter J. Potichnyj and Howard Aster, eds., Ukrainianjewish Relations in Historical Perspective (Edmonton 1988), pp. 281-305, and by Allan L. Kagedan, ‘SovietJewish Territorial Units and Ukrainianjewish Relations,’ HUS, IX, 1-2 (1985), pp. 118-132; the Crimean Tatars, by Alan Fisher, The Crimean Tatars (Stan­ford, Calif. 1978), esp. chapter 12, and by Edward Lazzerini, ‘Crimean Tatar: The Fate of a Severed Tongue,’ in Isabelle T. Kreindler, ed., Sociolinguistic Perspectives on Soviet National Languages (Berlin, New York, and Amsterdam 1985), pp. 109­124; the Mennonites, by John B. Toews, ‘Early Communism and Russian Men- nonite Peoplehood,’ in John Friesen, ed., Mennonites in Russia, 1788-1988 (Win­nipeg 1989), pp. 265-287, by idem, ‘The Russian Mennonites and the Military Question, 1921-1927,’ Mennonite Quarterly Review, XLIII, 1 (Goshen, Ind. 1969), pp. 153-168, and by Harry Loewen, ‘Anti-Menno: Introduction to Early Soviet- Mennonite Literature, 1^20-^40,’ Journal of Mennonite Studies, XI (Winnipeg 1993), pp- 23-42.

The efforts to sustain a distinct Ukrainian Orthodox church are described in three studies by Bohdan Bociurkiw: ‘The Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church, 1920-1930,’ in Dennis Dunn, ed., Religion and Modernization in the Soviet Union (Boulder, Colo. 1977), pp. 310-347; ‘Ukrainianization Movements within the Russian Orthodox Church and the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church,’ HUS, III-IV, pt. 1 (1979-80), pp. 92-111; and ‘The Soviet Destruction of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church, 1929-1936,’ JUS, XII, 1 [22] (Edmonton 1987), PP· 3-21.

There is less literature on western Ukrainian lands during the interwar period. A useful introductory overview of developments in Galicia, Bukovina, and Transcar­pathia is provided byJohn-Paul Himka, ‘Western Ukraine in the Interwar Period,’ Nationalities Papers, XX, 2 (New York 1994), pp. 347-364. Ukrainians in Poland, in particular eastern Galicia, are given attention in a few general and specific works. General surveys of political, demographic, economic, and cultural developments are found in Bohdan Budurowycz, ‘Poland and the Ukrainian Problem, 1921­1939,’ Canadian Slavonic Papers, XXV, 4 (Toronto 1983), pp. 473-500; Stephen Horak, Poland and Her National Minorities, igig-l939 (New York 1961); idem, ‘Belorussian and Ukrainian Peasants in Poland, 1919-1939,’ in Ivan Volgyes, ed., The Peasantry of Eastern Europe, Vol. I (New York 1979), pp. 133-156; Volodymyr Kubijovyc, Western Ukraine within Poland, 1920-1939: Ethnic Relationships (Chicago 1963); and idem, Ethnic Groups of the South-Western Ukraine: Halycyna - Galicia 1.1. 1939 (Wiesbaden 1983), with large-scale detailed maps. The contemporary Polish perspective is provided by M. Felinski, The Ukrainians in Poland (London 1931); and Stanislaw Los, ‘The Ukrainian Question in Poland,’ Slavonic and East European Review, IX [27] (London 1931), pp. 567-587. Twelve polemical pamphlets from the interwar years representing the Ukrainian and Polish views on Galicia are reprinted in Seeds of Conflict Series I: Irredentist and National Questions in Central Europe, 1913-1939, Vol. VIII: Poland (Nendeln, Liechtenstein 1973).

The fate of Galicia in diplomatic negotiations at the close of World War I is the subject of several studies: Laurence Orzell, ‘A “Hotly Disputed” Issue: Eastern Galicia at the Paris Peace Conference,’ Polish Review, XXV, 1 (New York 1980), pp. 49-68; Leonid C. Sonevytsky, ‘The Ukrainian Question in R.H. Lord’s Writings on the Paris Peace Conference,’ AUAAS, X, 1-2 (1962-63), pp. 65-84; and Taras Hunczak, ‘Sir Lewis Namier and the Struggle for Eastern Galicia,’ HUS, I, 2 (1977), PP· 198-210. Subsequent problems related to Polish rule are outlined in a collection of accusatory eyewitness reports: Emil Revyuk, ed., Polish Atrocities in Ukraine (New York 1931); and in a dispassionate study of efforts at political com­promise: E. Wynot, Jr., ‘The Ukrainians and the Polish Regime, 1937-1939,’ Ukrains'kyi istoryk, VII, 4 (New York 1970), pp. 44-60.

The women’s movement and the influence of the Greek Catholic church are discussed in some detail in a monograph by Martha Bohachevsky-Chomiak, Femi­nists despite Themselves: Women in Ukrainian Community Life, 1884-1939 (Edmonton 1988), esp. chapters 12-18. Essays by Bohdan Budurowycz, Ryszard Torzecki, Ann Sirka, and Myroslava M. Mudrak discuss Metropolitan Andrei Sheptyts'kyi, the most important church and civic figure in interwar eastern Galicia, in Paul Robert Magocsi, ed., Morality and Reality: The Life and Times of Andrei Sheptyts'kyi (Edmon­ton 1989), esp. chapters 3, 4, and 12-14. Although of secondary importance during the interwar period, the Communist party, because of its subsequent significance, has been studied in detail by Roman Solchanyk, ‘The Foundation of the Communist Movement in Eastern Galicia, 1919-1921,’ Slavic Review, XXX, 4 (Columbus, Ohio 1971), pp. 774-794; and Janusz Radziejowski, The Communist Party of Western Ukraine, 1919-1929 (Edmonton 1983).

A special topic that is linked only in part to that of eastern Galicia during the interwar period is Ukrainian political thought. A useful introductory survey is Ivan L. Rudnytsky, ‘Trends in Ukrainian Political Thought,’ in his Essays in Modem Ukrainian History (Edmonton 1987), pp. 91-122. The relationship between politi­cal thought and action is the subject of Alexander J. Motyl, The Turn to the Right: The Ideological Origins and Development of Ukrainian Nationalism, 1919-1929 (New York 1980). One twentieth-century political exile has received particular atten­tion, in Jaroslaw Pelenski, ed., The Political and Social Ideas of Vjaceslav Lypyns' kyj, special issue of HUS, IX, 3-4 (1985); and in Alexander J. Motyl, ‘Viacheslav Lypyns'kyi and the Ideology and Politics of Ukrainian Monarchism,’ Canadian Slavonic Papers, XXVII, 1 (Toronto 1985), pp. 31-48.

With regard to the other territories in western Ukraine, Bukovina during the interwar years is discussed in only two studies. Irina Livezeanu, Cultural Politics in Great Romania: Regionalism, Nation Building, and Ethnic Struggle, 1918-1930 (Ithaca and London 1995), esp. chapter 2, provides a dispassionate account of the new school system for both Ukrainians and Romanians; and David Shaary, ‘Jewish Culture in Multinational Bukovina between the World Wars,’ in Shvut, Vol. XVI, edited by Liviu Rotman (Tel Aviv 1993), pp. 281-296, surveys cultural develop­ments among the region’s third-largest minority.

In contrast, the literature about Transcarpathia is much more developed. The best general introductions are by C.A. Macartney, ‘Ruthenia,’ in his Hun­gary and Her Successors: The Treaty of Trianon and Its Consequences, 1919-1937 (London 1937), pp. 200-250; and by Oscar Jaszi, ‘The Problem of Sub­Carpathian Ruthenia,’ in Robert J. Kerner, ed., Czechoslovakia (Berkeley, Calif. 1940), pp. 193-215. Paul Robert Magocsi, The Shaping of a National Identity: Sub­carpathian Rus’, 1848-1948 (Cambridge, Mass. 1978), esp. chapters 5-11, deals with the political, cultural, and religious aspects of the nationality question; Peter G. Stercho, Diplomacy of Double Morality: Europe’s Crossroads in Carpatho- Ukraine, 1919-1939 (New York 1971), esp. chapter 2, and Walter K. Hanak, The Subcarpathian-Ruthenian Question, 1918-1945 (Munhall, Pa. 1962) both focus on efforts to achieve autonomy. The economic, political, cultural, and religious life of Jews in the region is treated in three essays by Aryeh Sole and Hugo Stransky in The fews of Czechoslovakia (Philadelphia and New York 1968), Vol. I, pp. 125­154 and Vol. II, pp. 347-389 and 401-439; and in a more popular account by Herman Dicker, Piety and Perseverance: Jews from the Carpathian Mountains (New York 1981).

11. World War II

General introductions on the war years are found in a collection of essays: Yury Boshyk, ed., Ukraine during World War II: History and Its Aftermath (Edmonton 1986). The relationship of the war to the national movement is best described in a detailed monograph by John A. Armstrong, Ukrainian Nationalism, 1939-1945 (New York 1955; 3rd rev. ed., Littleton, Colo. 1990); while the attitudes of two western powers toward Ukraine are traced in critical essays and a selection of dip­lomatic papers in Lubomyr Y. Luciuk and Bohdan S. Kordan, eds., Anglo-American Perspectives on the Ukrainian Question, 1938-1951: A Documentary Collection (Kings­ton, Ont. and Vestal, N.Y. 1987).

The ‘prewar’ events that led to the creation of a Carpatho-Ukrainian autono­mous state and its precarious position in the rapidly changing international set­ting are traced in Peter G. Stercho, Diplomacy of Double Morality: Europe’s Crossroads in Carpatho-Ukraine, 1919-1939 (New York 1971), esp. chapters 3-8; and Bohdan Budurowycz, ‘The Ukrainian Problem in International Politics, October 1938 to March 1939,’ Canadian Slavonic Papers, III, 2 (Ottawa 1959), pp. 59-75- A view of these events as well as of the wartime occupation of the region by Hungary from local political leaders or eyewitnesses is provided by Augustin Stefan, Julian Revay, Vincent Shandor, and Vasyl Markus in a special issue, Carpatho-Ukraine’s Struggle, of the Ukrainian Quarterly, X, 3 (New York 1954), pp. 219-256. On the same period from the perspective of an outsider, see Michael Winch, Republic for a Day: An Eyewitness Account of the Carpatho-Ukraine Incident (London 1939).

The first stage of the war - the Soviet invasion and annexation of eastern Gali­cia and western Volhynia - and its impact on Poles and Jews as well as Ukrainians is well documented in Jan T. Gross, Revolution from Abroad: The Soviet Conquest of Poland’s Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia (Princeton, NJ. 1988); and in a col­lection of essays in Kieth Sword, ed., The Soviet Takeover of the Polish Eastern Prov­inces, 1939-1941 (London 1991). For more information about the specific impact on Ukrainians, see David R. Marples, ‘Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia under Soviet Occupation: The Development of Socialist Farming, 1939-1941,’ Canadian Slavonic Papers, XXVII, 2 (Toronto 1985), pp. 158-177, reprinted in his Stalinism in Ukraine in the 1940s (Edmonton 1992), pp. 24-41; and Bohdan R. Bociurkiw, ‘Sheptyts'kyi and the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church under Soviet Occupation, 1939-1941,’ in Paul Robert Magocsi, ed., Morality and Reality: The Life and Times of Andrei Sheptyts'kyi (Edmonton 1989), pp. 101-124.

The war years are dealt with in great detail in several monographs. Good intro­ductions to the military campaigns on Ukrainian territory by both the German and the Soviet armies are John Erickson, The Road to Stalingrad: Stalin’s War with Germany (London 1975); and idem, The Road to Berlin: Continuing the History of Sta­lin’s War with Germany (Boulder, Colo. 1983). Ukraine also figures prominently in general works on Nazi rule in eastern Europe: Alexander Dallin, German Rule in Russia, 1941-1945: A Study in Occupation Policies (New York 1957; 2nd rev. ed., Boulder, Colo. 1981); Gerald Reitlinger, The House Built on Sand: The Conflicts of German Policy in Russia, 1939-1945 (New York i960); Ihor Kamenetsky, Secret Nazi Plans for Eastern Europe: A Study of Lebensraum Policies (New Haven, Conn. 1961); and Timothy Patrick Mulligan, The Politics of Illusion and Empire: German Occupation Policy in the Soviet Union, 1942-1943 (New York 1988), esp. chapters 5 and 7 on the Reichskommissariat Ukraine. More specific attention is given to Ukraine in Ihor Kamenetsky, Hitler’s Occupation of Ukraine, 1941-1944 (Milwaukee 1956); and Wolodymyr Kosyk, The Third Reich and Ukraine (New York 1993).

The status of Ukrainian churches is given significant attention in general works on the wartime religious revival: Wassilij Alexeev and Theofanis G. Stavrou, The Great Revival: The Russian Church under German Occupation (Minneapolis 1976), esp. chapter 5; Harvey Fireside, Icon and Swastika: The Russian Orthodox Church underNazi and Soviet Control (Cambridge, Mass. 1971); and in a study focusing spe­cifically on Ukraine: Hansjakob Stehle, ‘Sheptyts'kyi and the German Regime,’ in Magocsi, Morality and Reality, pp. 125-144.

Many studies deal with Ukrainian military formations and their role in the nationalist struggle against the armies of both the Soviet Union and Nazi Ger­many. Among the most comprehensive works is Y. Tys-Krokhmaliuk, UPA Warfare in Ukraine: Strategical, Tactical, and Organizational Problems of Ukrainian Resistance in World War II (New York 1972) ; as well as Oleh Martowych [Lev Shankowsky], The Ukrainian Insurgent Army (Munich 1950); and Petro R. Sodol, UPA: They Fought Hitler and Stalin: A Brief Overview of Military Aspects from the History of the Ukrainian Insurgent Army, 1942-1949 (New York 1987). The ideology of the movement is pre­sented in an annotated collection of contemporary documents compiled by Peter J. Potichnyj and Yevhen Shtenderà, eds., Political Thought of the Ukrainian Under­ground, 1943-1951 (Edmonton 1986).

There are also several studies dealing with Ukrainian forces that fought on the side of Germany: Myroslav Yurkevich, ‘Galician Ukrainians in German Military Formations and in the German Administration,’ in Boshyk, Ukraine during World War II, pp. 67-88; Richard Landwehr, Fighting for Freedom: The Ukrainian Volunteer Division of the Waffen-SS (Silver Spring, Md. 1985); essays by Wolfdieter Bihl, Peter J. Potichnyj, and Taras Hunczak in Hans-Joachim Torke and John-Paul Himka, eds., German-Ukrainian Relations in Historical Perspective (Edmonton and Toronto 1994), PP· 138-186; and the memoirs of German and Ukrainian officers con­nected with the Galicia Division: Wolf-Dietrich Heike, The Ukrainian Division ‘Gali­cia’, 1943—45: A Memoir (Toronto, Paris, and Munich 1988); and Pavlo Shandruk, Arms of Valor (New York 1959). The Soviets and their sympathizers in the West pro­duced a wide body of accusatory polemics against ‘Ukrainian nationalist collabo­rators’: V. Cherednychenko, Collaborationists (Kiev 1975); idem, Anatomy of Treason (Kiev 1984) ; Yaroslav Halan, Lest People Forget: Pamphlets, Articles, and Reports (Kiev 1986); and Marko Terlytsia, Herds the Evidence (Toronto 1984). To make the accu­sations sound more plausible, the Soviets published select documentary evidence: V.N. Denisov and G.I. Changuli, eds., Nazi Crimes in Ukraine, 1941-1944: Documents and Materials (Kiev 1987). The issue of wartime collaboration in scholarly as well as polemical writings is discussed by Marples, Stalinism in Ukraine, esp. chapter 4. Collaboration of a different kind, that of leftist Czechoslovak and Soviet diplomats arranging for the acquisition of new territory south of the Carpathian Mountains, is the subject of a historical analysis and collection of documents from 1944-1945 in F. Nemec and V. Moudry, The Soviet Seizure of Subcarpathian Ruthenia (Toronto 1955)·

The fate of Jews on Ukrainian lands during World War II is treated in several works. The transformation of their traditional life in western Ukraine in the wake of the Soviet annexation in late 1939 is discussed at some length by Ben-Cion Pin­chuk, Shtetl Jews under Soviet Rule: Eastern Poland on the Eve of the Holocaust (Oxford 1990); by Aharon Weiss, ‘Some Economic and Social Problems of the Jews of East­ern Galicia in the Period of Soviet Rule,’ in Norman Davies and Antony Polansky, eds., Jews in Eastern Poland and the USSR, 1939-46 (Basingstoke, Hampshire, and London 1991), pp. 77-109; and by Jan Gross, ‘The Jewish Community in the Soviet-Annexed Territories on the Eve of the Holocaust,’ in Lucjan Dobroszycki and Jeffrey S. Gurock, eds., The Holocaust in the Soviet Union (Armonk, N.Y. and London 1993), PP· 155-172.

The impact of the German invasion and Nazi racial policy specifically on Jews is described in studies by Philip Friedman, ‘Ukrainian-Jewish Relations during the Nazi Occupation,’ YIVO Annual of Jewish Social Science, XII (New York 1958-59), pp. 259-296, reprinted in Philip Friedman, Roads to Extinction: Essays on the Holo­caust (New York and Philadelphia 1980), pp. 176-208; by Yaroslav Bilinsky, ‘Meth­odological Problems and Philosophical Issues in the Study of Jewish-Ukrainian Relations during the Second World War,’ in Peter J. Potichnyj and Howard Aster, eds., Ukrainian-Jewish Relations in Historical Perspective (Edmonton 1988), pp. 373­408; by Taras Hunczak, ‘Ukrainian-Jewish Relations during the Soviet and Nazi Occupations,’ in Boshyk, Ukraine during World War II, pp. 39-57; by Andrzej Zbikowski, ‘Local Anti-Jewish Pogroms in the Occupied Territories of Eastern Poland,’ in Dobroszycki and Gurock, Holocaust in the Soviet Union, pp. 173-180; and in the several contemporary recollections in Ilya Ehrenburg and Vasily Gross­man, eds., The Black Book: The Ruthless Murder of Jews by German-Fascist Invaders throughout the Tempcrrarily-Occupied Regions of the Soviet Union and in the Death Camps of Poland during the War of 1941-1945 (New York 1981), esp. pt. 1: ‘The Ukraine,’ pp. 1-136. The policy of the Soviet government toward Jews and its subsequent attitude toward the Holocaust are dealt with in essays by Zvi Gitelman, Lukasz Hirszowicz, William Korey, and Mordechai Altschuler in Dobroszycki and Gurock, Holocaust in the Soviet Union.

Jewish, communities in western Ukrainian lands have received particular atten­tion. There are several memoirs of survivors: Leon Weliczker-Wells, Jancw.s&a Road (New York 1963); Joachim Schoenfeld, Holocaust Memoirs: Jews in theLwow Ghetto, the Janowski Concentration Camp, and as Deportees in Siberia (Hoboken, N.J. 1985); Yitzhak Sternberg, Under Assumed Identity (Jerusalem 1986); David Kahane, Lvov Ghetto Diary (Amherst, Mass. 1990); Robert Marshall, In the Sewers of Lvov (London 1990); Michael Diment, The Lone Survivor: A Diary of the Lukacze Ghetto and Svyniu- khy, Ukraine (New York 1992); Nelly S. Toll, Behind the Secret Window (New York 1993); and Kurt I. Lewin, A Journey through Illusions (Santa Barbara, Calif. 1994). There are also scholarly studies on the Jews in various western Ukrainian lands. On German-administered eastern Galicia and Volhynia, see Philip Friedman, ‘The Destruction of the Jews of Lwow,’ in his Roads to Extinction, pp. 244-321; Aharon Weiss, Jewish-Ukrainian Relations in Western Ukraine during the Holocaust,’ in Potichnyj and Aster, Ukrainian-Jewish Relations, pp. 409-420; Shimon Redlich, ‘Sheptyts'kyi and the Jews,’ in Magocsi, Morality and Reality, pp. 145-162; and Shmuel Spector, The Holocaust of Volhynian Jews, 1941-1944 (Jerusalem 1990). The impact of Hungarian rule in Transcarpathia is described by Livia Rothkirchen, ‘Deep-Rooted yet Alien: Some Aspects of the History of the Jews in Subcarpathian Ruthenia,’ Yad Vashem Studies, XII (Jerusalem 1977), pp. 147-191; and Randolph L. Braham, ‘The Destruction of the Jews of Carpatho-Ruthenia,’ in Hungarianjewish Studies (New York 1966), pp. 223-235. Romanian rule in the region between the Dniester and Southern Buh Rivers is described in Julius S. Fisher, Transnistria: The Forgotten Cemetery (South Brunswick, NJ., New York, and London 1969); and Dalie Ofer, ‘The Holocaust in Transnistria,’ in Dobroszycki and Gurock, Holocaust in the Soviet Union, pp. 133-154.

The fate of Poles, whether as a result of the first Soviet annexation or of the forced deportations and exchange of populations at the end of the war, is recorded in a scholarly monograph by Keith Sword, Deportation and Exile: Poles in the Soviet Union, 1939-1948 (New York and London 1994); in an eyewitness report by Zygmunt Sobieski, ‘Reminiscences from Lwow, 1939-1944,’ Journal of Central European Affairs, VI, 4 (Boulder, Colo. 1947), pp. 350-374; and in impassioned accounts by Mikolaj Terles, ed., Ethnic Cleansing of Poles in Volhynia and East Gali­cia, 1942-1946 (Toronto 1993), and Tadeusz Piotrowski, Vengeance of the Swallows: Memoir of a Polish Family’s Ordeal under Soviet Aggression, Ukrainian Ethnic Cleansing and Nazi Enslavement, and Their Emigration to America (Jefferson, N.C. 1994). The historiography on Polish-Ukrainian relations during the war and immediate post­war years is surveyed in short essays by Jozef Lewandowski and John Basarab, in Peter J. Potichnyj, ed., Poland and Ukraine: Past and Present (Edmonton and Tor­onto 1980), pp. 231-270; and by Andrzej Zi^ba, ‘Sheptyts'kyi in Polish Public Opinion,’ in Magocsi, Morality and Reality, pp. 377-406. The overall loss of life is documented by Stephan G. Prociuk, ‘Human Losses in the Ukraine in World War I and II,’ AUAAS, XIII (New York 1973-77), PP· 23^_5°·

12. The post-1945 Soviet era

There is an extensive literature on the postwar years. Good introductions to the first two decades, with particular emphasis on administrative and ideological mat­ters, are Yaroslav Bilinsky, The Second Soviet Republic: The Ukraine after World War II (New Brunswick, N.J. 1964); and Robert S. Sullivant, Soviet Politics and the Ukraine, I9I7-I957 (New York and London 1962), esp. chapters 6-7. The chronological coverage is extended through the 1970s in Borys Lewytzkyj, Politics and Society in Soviet Ukraine, 1953—1980 (Edmonton 1984); Bohdan Krawchenko, Social Change and National Consciousness in Twentieth-Century Ukraine (New York 1985), esp. chap­ter 5; Peter J. Potichnyj, ed., Ukraine in the Seventies (Oakville, Ont. 1975); and Bohdan Krawchenko, ed., Ukraine after Shelest (Edmonton 1983). It is also useful to view this same period through the eyes of a former longtime first secretary of the Communist party of Ukraine: V.V. Shcherbitsky, Soviet Ukraine (Moscow 1985).

The manner in which the party actually administered the country is described by John A. Armstrong, The Soviet Bureaucratic Elite: A Case Study of the Ukrainian Apparatus (New York 1959). The Ukrainian variant of Kremlinology - the attempt by western observers to determine by indirect evidence the reasons why Soviet leaders acted the way they did - produced a number of studies that tried to explain the motivations behind the changes in the Communist Ukrainian leader­ship: Grey Hodnett, ‘The Views of Petro Shelest,’ AUAAS, XIV (1978-80), pp. 209-243; Yaroslav Bilinsky ‘Mykola Skrypnyk and Petro Shelest: An Essay on the Persistence and Limits of Ukrainian National Communism,’ in Jeremy R. Azrael, ed., Soviet Nationality Policies and Practices (New York 1978), pp. 105-143; Lowell Tillett, ‘Ukrainian Nationalism and the Fall of Shelest,’ Slavic Review, XXXIV, 4 (Columbus, Ohio 1975), pp. 752-768; and Yaroslav Bilinsky, ‘Schcherbytsky, Ukraine and Kremlin Politics,’ Problems of Communism, XXXII, 4 (Washington, D.C. 1983), pp. 1-20.

The particular status of Soviet Ukraine as a ‘state within a state’ has also attracted the attention of several political and legal analyses. Theoretical issues are outlined in Theofil I. Kis, Nationhood, Statehood, and the International Status of the Ukrainian SSR/Ukraine (Ottawa, London, and Paris 1989). The manner is which the state functioned on the international scene is surveyed by Alexander J. Motyl, ‘The Foreign Relations of the Ukrainian SSR,’ HUS, VI, 1 (1982), pp. 62-78; and Yaroslav Bilinsky, ‘The Ukrainian SSR in International Affairs after World War II,’ AUAAS, IX, 1-2 (1961), pp. 147-166. The role of Soviet Ukraine in specific events is treated in great detail in Konstantin Sawczuk, The Ukraine in the United Nations Organization: A Study in Soviet Foreign Policy, I944-IQ5O (Boulder, Colo. 1975); and Grey Hodnett and Peter J. Potichnyj, The Ukraine and the Czechoslovak Crisis (Can­berra 1970). Soviet Ukraine’s economic and cultural relations with Poland as well as the status of Poles in postwar Soviet Ukraine are discussed by Vasyl Markus, Volodymyr N. Bandera, Georges Mond, Borys Lewytzkyj, and Roman Szporluk in Peter J. Potichnyj, ed., Poland and Ukraine: Past and Present (Edmonton and Toronto 1980), pp. 132-227.

Economic development in the decades after World War II is traced by several authors in I.S. Koropeckyj, ed., The Ukraine within the USSR: An Economic Balance Sheet (New York and London 1977); specifically in the 1970s, by Gennady Ozor- noy, in Krawchenko, Ukraine after Shelest, pp. 73-100; and, specifically in agricul­ture, by Ihor Stebelsky, in Potichnyj, Ukraine in the Seventies, pp. 103-126. The question of Ukraine’s economic integration in the Soviet Union is given particu­lar attention in I.S. Koropeckyj, Development in the Shadow: Studies in Ukrainian Eco­nomics (Edmonton 1990); and idem, ‘A Century of Moscow-Ukraine Economic Relations: An Interpretation,’ HUS, V, 4 (1981), pp. 467-496. Urban growth and its effect on society as a whole is discussed in great detail by Peter Woroby, ‘Effects of Urbanization in the Ukraine,’ AUAAS, XIII (1973-77), pp. 51-115; and by Roman Szporluk, ‘Urbanization in Ukraine since the Second World War,’ in Ivan L. Rudnytsky, ed., Rethinking Ukrainian History (Edmonton 1981), pp. 180-202.

Demographic issues, in particular as they affect the relationship between Ukrainians and Russians within Ukraine, are discussed in statistical analyses by Ralph S. Clem and Peter Woroby, in Peter J. Potichnyj et al., eds., Ukraine and Rus­sia in Their Historical Encounter (Edmonton 1992), pp. 277-326. The socioeco­nomic status and political attitudes of Ukraine’s other peoples during the last years of Soviet rule and first years after independence are the subject of a few studies: Evgenii Golovakha, Natalia Panina, and Nikolai Churilov, ‘Russians in Ukraine,’ in Vladimir Shlapentokh et al., eds., The New Russian Diaspora (Armonk, N.Y. and London 1994), PP· 59^_7E Paul Kolstoe, Russians in the Former Soviet Republics (Bloomington and Indianapolis 1995), esp. pp. 170-199; David R. Mar­ples and David F. Duke, ‘Ukraine, Russia, and the Question of Crimea,’ Nationali­ties Papers, XXIII, 2 (New York 1995), pp. 261-289; Paul Robert Magocsi, ‘The Birth of a New Nation, or the Return of an Old Problem? The Rusyns of East Cen­tral Europe,’ Canadian Slavonic Papers, XXIV, 3 (Edmonton 1992), pp. 199-223; and idem, ‘The Hungarians in Transcarpathia (Subcarpathian Rus'),’ Nationalities Papers, XXIV, 2 (New York 1996).

The newly annexed western Ukrainian lands, in particular Galicia, are the sub­ject of several studies. The manner in which the Soviet system was implemented in concrete terms is discussed by David Marples, ‘The Kulak in Western Ukraine,’ Soviet Studies, XXXVI, 4 (Glasgow 1984), pp. 560-570, and ‘Collectivization in Western Ukraine, 1948-1949,’ Nationalities Papers, XIII, 1 (North York, Ont. 1985), pp. 24-44 - both articles reprinted, together with ‘Khrushchev and Mass Collectiv­ization in Western Ukraine, 1950-1951,’ in David R. Marples, Stalinism in Ukraine in the 1940s (Edmonton 1992), pp. 97-160. The subsequent impact of the more nationally aware Galician Ukrainians on the rest of the country is treated by Yaro­slav Bilinsky, ‘The Incorporation of Western Ukraine and Its Impact on Politics and Society in Soviet Ukraine,’ in Roman Szporluk, ed., The Influence of East Europe and the Soviet West on the USSR (New York 1976), pp. 180-228.

The destruction of the Greek Catholic church has received special attention. An early description of events by church leaders, together with documents, in First Victims of Communism: White Book of the Religious Persecution in Ukraine (Rome 1953), was followed by three scholarly articles: Bohdan R. Bociurkiw, ‘The Uniate Church in the Soviet Ukraine: A Case Study in Soviet Church Policy,’ Canadian Slavonic Papers, VII (Ottawa 1965), pp. 89-115; D. Dirscherl, ‘The Soviet Destruc­tion of the Greek Catholic Church,’ Journal of Church and State, XII (Waco, Tex. 1970), pp. 421-439; and Dennis J. Dunn, ‘The Disappearance of the Ukrainian Uniate Church: How and Why?’ Ukrains'kyi istoryk, IX, 1-2 (New York and Munich 1972), pp. 57-65. The Orthodox and approved Soviet view of these events is avail­able in Lvov Church Council: Documents and Materials, 1946-1981 (Moscow 1983). The most comprehensive analysis, based on extensive archival documentation from recently opened former Soviet archives, is Bohdan Rostyslav Bociurkiw, The Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church and the Soviet State, 1939-1950 (Edmonton and Tor­onto 1996). A broader discussion, including the fate of the Greek Catholic church in neighboring Communist countries, is provided by Dennis Dunn, The Catholic Church and the Soviet Government, 1939-1949 (Boulder, Colo. 1977). The destruc­tion of the church specifically in Transcarpathia is discussed by Michael Lacko, ‘The Forced Liquidation of the Union of Uzhorod,’ Slovak Studies, I (Rome 1961), pp.145-185.

The various ways in which Ukrainian nationalism survived and evolved under the postwar Soviet regime is best described in Kenneth C. Farmer, Ukrainian Nationalism in the Post-Stalin Era (The Hague, Boston, and London 1980). Also of importance are extended essays by Yaroslav Bilinsky, ‘Assimilation and Ethnic Assertiveness among Ukrainians of the Soviet Union,’ in Eric Goldhagen, ed., Ethnic Minorities in the Soviet Union (New York 1968), pp. 147-184; and by Roman Szporluk, ‘The Ukraine and Russia,’ in Robert Conquest, ed., The Last Empire: Nationality and the Soviet Future (Stanford, Calif. 1986), pp. 151-182. The persis­tence of language as a political factor and as a barometer of national survival is discussed by Paul Wexler, Purism and Language: A Study of Modem Ukrainian and Belorussian Nationalism, 1940-1967 (Bloomington, Ind. 1974); by Roman Sol- chanyk, ‘Language Politics in the Ukraine,’ in Isabelle T. Kreindler, ed., Sociolin- guistic Perspectives on Soviet National Languages (Berlin, New York, and Amsterdam 1985), esp. pp. 73-105; and by Roman Szporluk, ‘West Ukraine and West Belorus- sia: Historical Tradition, Social Communication, and Linguistic Assimilation,’ Soviet Studies, XXXI, 1 (Glasgow 1979), pp. 76-98.

The way in which the writing of Ukrainian history was used and misused by Soviet policy makers to justify and buttress their rule is the subject of several studies, including Stephen Velychenko, Shaping Identity in Eastern Europe and Russia: Soviet Russian and Polish Accounts of Ukrainian History, 1914-1991 (New York 1993), esp. chapters 7-8; idem, ‘The Origins of the Official Soviet Interpretation of Eastern Slavic History: A Case Study of Policy Formulation,’ Forschungen zur osteuropäischen Geschichte, XLVI (Berlin 1992), pp. 225-253; Roman Szporluk, ‘National History as a Political Battleground: The Case of Ukraine and Belorussia,’ in Michael S. Pap, ed., Russian Empire: Some Aspects of Tsarist and Soviet Colonial Practices (Cleveland 1985), pp. 131-150; Jaroslaw Pelenski, ‘Soviet Ukrainian Historiography after World War II,’ fahrbücherfür Geschichte Osteuropas, N.S., XII (Wiesbaden 1964), pp. 375^_418; and Lubomyr R. Wynar, ‘The Present State of Ukrainian Historiography in Soviet Ukraine: A Brief Overview,’ Nationalities Papers, VII, 1 (Charleston, Ill. 1979), PP· 1-23. Since the mid-1980s, during the decline and eventual end of Soviet rule, the historical past has again been used in an effort to help chart Ukraine’s political future. The Cossack period, in particular, is emphasized, as discussed in several recent essays on the topic by Frank Sysyn, ‘The Reemergence of the Ukrainian Nation and Cossack Mythology,’ Social Research, LVIII, 4 (New York 1991), pp. 845-864; and by Zenon E. Kohut, ‘Russian-Ukrainian Relations and His­torical Consciousness in Contemporary Ukraine,’ and Serkii Μ. Plokhy, ‘Cossack Mythology in the Russian-Ukrainian Border Dispute,’ in S. Frederick Starr, ed., The Legacy of History in Russia and the New States of Eurasia (Armonk, N.Y. and Lon­don 1994), PP· 123-146.

Scholars in the West, especially during the Cold War and the so-called era of detente, were anxious to uncover all forms of opposition, however limited or politically innocuous, against Soviet rule. A book-length bibliography of pub­lished literature on the subject is available: George Liber and Anna Mostovych, comp., Nonconformity and Dissent in the Ukrainian SSR, 1955-1975: An Annotated Bib­liography (Cambridge, Mass. 1978). A good introduction to the sociodemographic background of dissidents and the response of the Soviet government is provided in Jaroslaw Bilocerkowycz, Soviet Ukrainian Dissent: A Study of Political Alienation (Boulder, Colo, and London 1988). For emphasis on ideological content, see Ivan L. Rudnytsky, ‘The Political Thought of Soviet Ukrainian Dissent,’JUS, 2 [11] (1981), pp. 3-16, reprinted in Ivan L. Rudnytsky, Essays in Modem Ukrainian History (Edmonton 1987), pp. 477-489; George S.N. Luckyj, ‘Polarity in Ukrainian Intel­lectual Dissent,’ Canadian Slavonic Papers, XIV, 2 (Ottawa 1972), pp. 269-279; and Victor Swoboda, ‘The Party Guidance of a Soviet Literature: The Case of the Ukraine, 1968-1975,’ in Evelyn Bristol, ed., East European Literature: Selected Papers from the Second World Congress for Soviet and East European Studies (Berkeley, Calif. 1982), pp. 85-106. The relationship of the dissident movement to Ukraine’s other peoples is discussed in Yaroslav Bilinsky, ‘Political Relations between Russians and Ukrainians in the USSR: The 1970s and Beyond,’ in Peter J. Potichnyj et al., Ukraine and Russia in Their Historical Encounter (Edmonton 1992), pp. 165-198; Peter J. Potichnyj, ‘The Struggle of the Crimean Tatars,’ Canadian Slavonic Papers, XVII, 2-3 (Ottawa 1975), pp. 302-319; and Israel Klejner, ‘The Present-Day Ukrainian National Movement in the USSR and the Jewish Question,’ Soviet Jewish Affairs, XI, 3 (London 1981), pp. 3-14.

Many of the writings of the dissidents have been translated into English, whether as anthologies: Slava Stetsko, ed., Revolutionary Voices: Ukrainian Political Prisoners Condemn Russian Colonialism, 2nd rev. ed. (Munich 1971); Michael Browne, ed., Ferment in the Ukraine: Documents by V. Chomovil, I. Kandyba, L. Lukyanenko, V. Moroz, and Others (Woodhaven, N.Y. 1973); The Ukrainian Herald, issues 4-8 (Munich and Baltimore, 1972-77); Lesya Verba and Nina Strokata, eds., The Human Rights Movement in Ukraine: Documents of the Ukrainian Helsinki Group, 1976-1980 (Baltimore 1980); or as individual works: lurii Badzo, ‘An Open Letter to the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and the Central Committee of the CPSU,’ JUS, IX, 1 and 2 [16 and 17] (1984), pp. 74-94 and 47-70; Vyacheslav Chornovil, The Chomovil Papers (New York and Toronto 1968); Ivan Dzyuba, Internationalism or Russification ? A Study in the Soviet Nationalities Problem, 3rd ed. (New York 1974); Valentyn Moroz, Report from the Beria Reserve (Toronto 1974); idem, Boomerang: The Works of Valentyn Moroz (Baltimore, Paris, and Toronto 1974); Mykhaylo Osadchy, Cataract (New York 1976); Leonid Plyushch, History’s Carnival: A Dissident’s Autobiography (New York 1979); Ivan Sverstiuk, Clandestine Essays (Cambridge, Mass. 1976); and Danylo Shumuk, Life Sentence: Memoirsofa Ukrainian Political Prisoner (Edmonton 1984).

A specific form of dissent was related to religious belief and church life in Ukraine. This is discussed in two general studies by Bohdan Bociurkiw, ‘Religion and Nationalism in Contemporary Ukraine,’ in G. Simmonds, ed., Nationalism in the USSR and Eastern Europe in the Era of Brezhnev and Kosygin (Detroit 1977), pp. 81-93; ^and ‘The Religious Situation in Soviet Ukraine,’ in Walter Dushnyk, ed., Ukraine in the Changing World (New York 1977), pp. 173-194. The specific status of Orthodoxy is reviewed by Bohdan R. Bociurkiw, ‘The Orthodox Church and the Soviet Regime in the Ukraine, 1953-1971/ Canadian Slavonic Papers, XIV, 2 (Ottawa 1972), pp. 191-212; and Frank E. Sysyn, ‘The Ukrainian Orthodox Ques­tion in the USSR,’ Religion in Communist Lands, XI, 3 (Keston, England 1983), pp. 251-263. The suppressed Greek Catholic church has a much more extensive liter­ature, including articles by Bohdan Bociurkiw and Vasyl Markus in Bohdan R. Bociurkiw and John Strong, eds., Religion and Atheism in the USSR and Eastern Europe (London 1975), pp. 58-90 and 101-122; by Ivan Hvat, ‘The Ukrainian Catholic Church, the Vatican, and the Soviet Union during the Pontificate of Pope John Paul II,’ Religion in Communist Lands, XI, 3 (Keston, England 1983), pp. 264-279; and by Myroslaw Tataryn, ‘The Re-emergence of the Ukrainian (Greek) Catholic Church in the USSR,’ in Sabrina Petra Ramet, ed., Religious Policy in the Soviet Union (New York 1993), pp. 319-349; an intellectual biography of the church’s imprisoned and later exiled metropolitan: Jaroslav Pelikan, Confessor between East and West: A Portrait of Ukrainian Cardinal Josyf Slipyj (Grand Rapids, Mich. 1990); and a memoir-like account of a leading dissident: Josyp Terelya, Witness to Apparitions and Persecutions in the USSR (Milford, Ohio 1991).

The most recent developments leading up to independence are also the sub­ject of a growing, if often speculative, literature. The impact of Gorbachev’s lead­ership on Soviet Ukraine is traced best in Taras Kuzio and Andrew Wilson, Ukraine: Perestroika to Independence (Edmonton and Toronto 1994). The views of the leading Ukrainian activists in their own words are provided by Roman Sol- chanyk, ed., Ukraine: From Chernobyl' to Sovereignty: A Collection of Interviews (Ed­monton 1992). David R. Marples discusses the nuclear accident at Chornobyl' and its political as well as environmental impact in Chernobyl and Nuclear Power in the USSR (Edmonton 1986), and Ukraine under Perestroika: Ecology, Economics, and the Workers’ Revolt (London 1991). The situation on the eve of and just after inde­pendence is outlined by Bohdan Krawchenko, ‘Ukraine: The Politics of Inde­pendence,’ in Ian Bremmer and Ray Taras, eds., Nations and Politics in the Soviet Successor States (Cambridge and New York 1993), pp. 75-98. Of the many recent descriptions of Ukraine’s current status and its possible political, economic, and social direction, the most reasonable is by Alexander J. Motyl, Dilemmas of Independence: Ukraine after Totalitarianism (New York 1993).