Index
Page numbers in italic type indicate the information will be found in an illustration.
A
Abandoned agricultural land
resource distribution maps 435
species diversity and community functions 444
Abies Iasiocarpa (subalpine fir) 391
Abiotic agents of change 378-379
Abiotic decomposition 503
Abiotic environment
ecological studies and 9
effects on abundance and distribution of a species 214-215, 216
effects on competition 325
limitations on community membership 429, 430-431
Abiotic processes
effects of climate on 24-25
influence of edge effects on 559
Abscisic acid 98
Absolute population size 207, 208
Absorption spectra, of plant photosynthetic pigments 111
Abundance
defined 205
dispersal and 217-218
effects of evolutionary and geologic history on 216-217 effects of positive interactions on 343-345 habitat suitability and 214-216, 217
methods of estimating 207-209
patterns of 209-213
population growth and 227-228
as population size or population density 205
prey abundance and predator-prey population cycles 277, 278 species diversity and 358
top-down control of energy flow and 480
trophic cascades and 480, see also Trophic cascades variation across environmental gradients 82
Abyssogena phaseoliformis 469
Acacia 343-345
Accessory pigments 110, 111
Acclimation 83n1
Acclimatization
in birds to changes in diet 126
compared to adaptation 84
description of 82-84
of plant photosynthesis to light levels 111, 113
of plants to dry environments 98
trade-offs and 84
Acid precipitation 500, 578, 579, 587-589
Acid pulse 588
Acidity 43
Acids 43
Aconitum napellus (monkshood) 239
Acorn barnacles
cohort life table 256-258
effects of physical environment and competition on species distribution 325
326
interference competition and 314
rocky intertidal food webs and 487-488
survivorship curves 256, 257
Acrocephalus sechellensis (Seychelles warbler) 215, 216
Acromyrmex 332
Actinomyces 290
Actinomycetes 396
Acyrthosiphon pisum (pea aphid) 294-295
Adalia decempunctata 300
Adaptations
compared to acclimatization 84
constraints on 144,145
defined 10, 141
evolutionary responses to global climate change 143-144 gene flow and local adaptation 144
natural selection and 141-142
phenotypic plasticity and 161
by populations to environmental variation 84-85
rapidity of adaptive evolution and 142,143
tool use and 128
trade-offs and 84
Adaptive evolution 141-144,145, 182
Adaptive management 565
Adaptive peaks 124, 125
Adaptive radiations 147-148
Adelie penguin (Pygoscelis adeliae) 186, 187
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
chemosynthesis and 109
heterotrophs and 121
photosynthesis and 110, 111
Aedes albopictus 324
Aedes triseriatus 324
Aerenchyma 98
Aerial photography 548, 549
Aerobic respiration
atmospheric oxygen and 111, see also Respiration
Aerosols 25, 500, 583
Africa
continental drift and 410, 411
dust deposition in the Amazon and 596
African clawed frog (Xenopus laevis) 3
African elephant (Loxodonta africana) 133, 251, 537-538
African seedcracker (Pyrenestes ostrinus) 138
Agathis australis (kauri) 403-404
Agave 172, 173
Age, static life tables and 258
Age class 255
Age structure 255-256
Agents of change 378-380
Aglais io (peacock butterfly) 189
Agoutis 562
Agriculture
acid precipitation and 587
C4 photosynthesis and crop plants 116
dust storms and 594-595
effects of grassland loss on regional climate 37
effects of tropospheric ozone on crop yields 594
global nitrogen cycle and 577, 578
global patterns of net primary production 465
global phosphorus cycle and 578, 579
impact on deserts 57
impact on grasslands and the Great Plains 76, 77
impact on temperate deciduous forests 61
impact on temperate grasslands 57
impact on tropical seasonal forests and savannas 55 nitrogen deposition and 587, 589-591 slash-and-burn agriculture in Peru 562
Agromyzid flies 270
Agrostis tenuis 144
Air pollution
acid precipitation 500, 578, 579, 587-589
nitrogen deposition 587, 589-591
tropospheric ozone and 593-594
Alaska
biological transport of pollutants 491
Steller sea lion population decline 479-480
succession in Glacier Bay 385-387, see also Aleutian Islands
Albatrosses 412
Albedo 36-37
Alces alces (moose) 336-337, 553
Alcohol, protective egg laying behavior by Drosophila and 181, 198
Alcohol dehydrogenase (Adh) gene 143
Alder stage 385, 386-387
Alders 385, 396, 499
Aleutian Islands
impact of introduced foxes on seabird populations 281
kelp forest-urchin barren dynamics 204-205, 221-222, 223, 364-365
Steller sea lion population decline 479-480
Algae
amphibian decline and 6
“blooms,” 463
competitive exclusion and fugitive species 328 complex life cycles 164-165
estuarine food webs and climate change 371-372 mutualism with corals 335, 340, 345
primary succession in rocky intertidal communities 389-390
Shag River trophic cascade and 481-482 symbiosis with autotrophic animals 108, 109, see also Green algae; Kelp beds; Macroalgae; Seaweeds
Alimentary canal 292
Alkalinity 43
Allan, Brian 557, 558
Allee effects 237, 239
Allele frequencies
directional selection in bighorn sheep and 151
evolution and 133-134
genetic drift and 137-139,140
mutation and 137
recombination and 137
Alleles
defined 134
fixation 137
gene flow and 139-140
genetic drift and 137-139,140
mutations and 136-137
Allelopathy 314
Allocation 160
Allochthonous energy 475
Allodesmus 147
Alluvium 498
Alnus sinuata 385
Alpha diversity 405
Alpheid shrimp 339-340
Alpine ecosystems
effects of nutrition on net primary production 460-461, 462
plant uptake of organic nitrogen 502-503, 504
Alpine plants
convective heat loss and 89 effects of dust movement on 596-597
effects of global climate change on geographic range 583, 584
relative neighbor effect 339
Alpine zone 66, 67
Alsterberg, Christian 371-372
Alternation of generations 165
Alternative stable states 392-394
Altitude sickness 83
Aluminum
acid precipitation and 588-589
nitrogen deposition and 591
occlusion 509
Alvin (submersible craft) 450
Amazon rainforest (Amazon Basin)
atmospheric deposition of phosphorus 500
biodiversity in 400
Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project 400-401, 422-423 dust deposition from Africa and 596
effects of habitat loss and degradation on biodiversity 529-530 habitat fragmentation and 400-401, 422-423
tree species richness in 402, 403, see also Tropical rainforests
Ambrosia chamissonis 114
Ambystoma gracile 395
Ambystoma macrodactylum (long-toed salamander) 3
Ambystoma mexicanum (axolotl salamander) 3
Ambystoma talpoideum (mole salamander) 172
Amensalisms 268, 315, 316
American beachgrass (Ammophila breviligulata) 382, 327, 345, 381
American bison (Bison bison) 58, 76, 304, 547, 594
American chestnut (Castanea dentata) 301
American Samoa 527-528
Amino acids
animal nutrition and 497
energy from food and 122
Ammonia
global nitrogen cycle and 577, 578
industrial nitrogen fixation and 499
nitrification and 502
Ammonium
in chemosynthesis 109, 110
nitrification and 502
nitrogen saturation and 589
Ammophila arenaria (European beach-grass) 327
Ammophila breviligulata (American beachgrass) 382, 327, 345, 381
Amoebic dysentery 293
Amphibian deformities and decline
Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and 534
early observations of 1-2, 3
field experiments on 4-5, 12
introduced predators and 15-16
laboratory experiments on 3-4, 12 studies revealing the complex causes of 16-17 unanticipated impact of human activities 5-6
Amphibians
number of imperiled species 522
phenotypic plasticity in spadefoot toads 160-161 succession on Mount St.
Helens 395 water balance in 100, see also Frogs; Salamanders Amphipods 301, 305, 306Amphiprion percula 158
Amur honeysuckle (Lonicera maackii) 418
Anadromous fish 22
Anaxyrus boreas (western toad) 4-5
Anchovy fishery 227, 240, 394
Andean goose (Chloephaga melanoptera) 137
Andersson, Malte 191
Andes/Andean highlands 84, 583
Andropogon gerardii (big bluestem) 346
Anemones 157-158, 177
Angiosperms, number of imperiled species 522
Angiostrongylus 290
Anglerfish (Melanocetus) 74
Animal behavior.
see Behavioral ecologyAnimal Ecology (Elton) 382-383
Animals
as autotrophs 108, 109
clones 206
complex life cycles 164, 165
continuing challenges of global climate change and 587 dessication tolerance 102, 103
dormancy 170
as ectoparasites 291-292
ectoparasites of 292
elemental composition 496
modification of energy balance by 89-90
nitrogen content 269
nutrient requirements 496, 497
semelparity 172-173
studies of succession 382-383
temperature regulation and tolerance in ectotherms 90-92 temperature regulation and tolerance in endotherms 92-94 water balance 98-101
Anisogamy 162-164
Annual bluegrass (Poa annua) 159, 253
Annual plants 56, 172
Anole lizards (Anolis)
community effects of predation by 280-281
effects of parasites on competition between species 305
rapid evolution in 142,143
resource partitioning 318
Anolis gingivinus 305
Anolis sagrei 280-281
Anolis wattsi 305
Antarctic ozone hole 593, 594
Antelopes 188, 189
Anthocyanins 504
Anthropocene epoch 583
“Anthropogenic Allee effect,” 533
Anthropogenic carbon release 573-575, 576, see also Atmospheric carbon dioxide
Anthropogenic nitrogen fixation 499, 577-578
Anthropogenic sulfur emissions 579, 580
Antibiotic resistance 10-11, 137, 152, 446
Antidorcas marsupialis (springbok) 189
Ants
ant-acacia mutualism 343-345
competition with desert rodents 315-316, 317 enslaver parasites and 289
facultative mutualisms 340-341
fungus-growing ants 332
leaf-cutter ants 332-333, 335-336, 339, 348-349 trophic cascade in a lowland tropical forest 482-483
Anus 125
Aphelion 38
Aphidius colemani 268
Aphids
defensive bacterial symbionts 294-295
enemies of 293
herbivory-driven evolution in Arabidopsis and 275, 276 mouthparts 123
trophic facilitations in salt marsh communities and 365
Apis cerana (Japanese honeybee) 90
Apomixis 206
Aposematic coloration 271, 272
Apple maggot fly (Rhagoletis pomonella) 149
Aquatic bladderworts (Utricularia) 312
Aquatic ecosystems/environments
amphibian decline and aquatic snails 3, 4, 6
ballast water organisms and species invasions 429-430
chemical constituents 41
community effects of herbivory by golden apple snails 282-283 control of net primary production by nutrient availability 461-464 crassulacean acid metabolism and aquatic plants 118 effects of acid precipitation on 587, 588, 589
energy and biomass pyramids 476
energy flow between trophic levels 476, 477 freshwater biological zones 67-69
impact of predators on the foraging behavior of prey 188 importance of salts and water balance 94 marine biological zones 69-75
methods of estimating net primary production 458-459 net secondary production 467
nitrogen deposition and 590-591
nutrients and nutrient cycling in 510-513 principle threats to 535 salts and salinity 42-43
seasonal changes in temperature 39-40 trophic cascade example 481-482 variation in oxygen concentrations 43 water balance in animals 99-100 water balance in plants 96
Arabidopsis thaliana 115, 275, 276
Arachnids 522
Aral Sea 595
Araucaria (monkey puzzle trees) 62
Arbuscular mycorrhizae 334-335
Arbuscule 335
Archaea
chemosynthesis 108, 109-110
food absorption by heterotrophs 122
global sulfur cycle 579
gut biota and 126
Archerfish (Toxotes chatareus) 141
Arctic ecosystems
effects of global climate change on 582, 585
effects of global climate change on Arctic oceans 585
effects of nutrients on net primary production 461
effects of soil pH on plant diversity 498
metabolic rate and endotherms 92
persistent organic pollutants and 472-473, 490
plant uptake of organic nitrogen 502-503, 504 seabird diversity 412, 413
Arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus) 281
Arctic oceans 585
Arctic ozone dent 593
Area de Conservacion Guancaste (ACG) 563
Area-based counts 207-208
Arenaria bryophylla 339
Argon 499
Argus pheasant (Argusianus argus) 190, 191
Armadillos 562
Artemisia tridentata (sagebrush) 59
Arthropods
prairie food webs 489
water balance and resistance to water loss 101
Artificial nest cavities 543
Asarum canadense (wild ginger) 249, 250
Ascoglossa 108
Asexual reproduction 162-163
Asia
continental drift and 410, 411
dust storms 595, 596
Asian giant hornet (Vespa mandarinia) 90
Asobara tabida 295
Aspect 35
Aspens
clones and genets 206, 207
geographic range and climate tolerance 82, 83
pine-and-aspen forests 66
species interactions and succession in mountain forests 391
wolf reintroduction in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem and 566-567
Assimilation, of food by heterotrophs 124-126
Assimilation efficiency 477-478
Aster novi-belgii 360
Asterionella 434-435
Asterionella formosa 315, 316
Asteroids 147
Asymmetrical competition 315, 316
Atacama Desert 34, 56
Athlete's foot 290, 292
Atlantic Ocean
atmospheric deposition of dust and 500
great ocean conveyor belt 31
Atmosphere
chemical constituents of 41-42
composition of 499
effects of volcanoes on 380
global energy balance and 25
global nitrogen cycle and 577-578
greenhouses gases and the greenhouse effect 581-582
human activities and ozone 592-594
latitudinal patterns of circulation cells 26-28
oxygen levels and photosynthesis 111
source of nutrients 499-500, 508
surface winds and ocean currents 29
variation in oxygen concentrations 43
water potential and humidity 95
wind patterns 28, 29, 30
Atmosphere pressure cells, climate variation and changes in 40, 41
Atmospheric carbon dioxide
anthropogenic carbon release 573-575, 576
changes through Earth's history 575
distribution of C3 and C4 plants and 117
effects of deforestation on 458
effects of elevated levels on forest ecosystem 574-575
global patterns of net primary production and 464
greenhouse effect and global climate change 25, 26, 581, 582-583 a greenhouse gas 581, 582
increasing levels of 499
IronEx I experiment to reduce levels of 463-464
ocean acidification and 43, 72, 371-372, 575-576 photorespiration and 115
uptake by autotrophs 499
Atmospheric circulation cells
effect on global precipitation patterns 33-34
overview and description of 26-28
prevailing wind patterns and 28, 29, 30
Atmospheric deposition
definition and description of 500, 508
of dust 513, see also Dust
global nitrogen cycle and 577, 578
influence of landscape structure on 553 methods of measuring 508
Atmospheric pressure 27
Atmospheric pressure cells
El-Nino events and 40
global precipitation patterns and 33, 34
prevailing winds and 28, 29, 30
ATP.
see Adenosine triphosphateAtriplex (saltbush) 59
Atriplex hymenelytra 114
Atriplex Ientiformis 114
Atriplex patula 440
Atriplex triangularis (spearscale) 112, 113
Atta 332, 333
Atta cephalotes 332
Atta colombica 348, 349
Atta laevigata 333
Attini (attines) 332
Auks 412, 413
Austin, Amy 503
Australasian biogeographic region 409, 410
Australia
biological control of Opuntia stricta 215, 216
habitat loss and fragmentation in 557
myxoma virus and European rabbit coevolution 297-298 ozone depletion and skin cancer 592
population viability analysis and management of rare marsupials 539 Australian sea lion (Neophoca cinerea) 189
Austrocedrus (Chilean cedar) 63
Autochthonous energy 475
Autotrophs/Autotrophy
chemosynthesis 108, 109-110
definition and description of 11, 108,109
energy and biomass pyramids 476
energy flow between trophic levels and 476-477
in food webs and interaction webs 357
photosynthesis 108, 109, 110-121, see also Photosynthesis primary production 452-459, see also Primary production trophic level occupied by 474
variability in carbon:nutrient ratios 477
Avoidance
coping with environmental change and 81
of subfreezing temperatures by ectotherms 92
Axolotl salamander (Ambystoma mexicanum) 3
Azolla 499
Background extinction rate 525
Backswimmer bug (Notonecta undulata) 442
Bacteria
antibiotic resistance 10-11, 137, 152
bioremediation and 122,123
cell walls 96
chemoautotrophs and hydrothermal vent communities 467-468, 469 chemosynthesis 108, 109-110
competition and character displacement 320
defensive symbionts 294-295
dormancy 170
effects of bacterial symbionts on fruit fly reproductive success 343, 344 elemental composition 496
global sulfur cycle 579
gut biota and food absorption by heterotrophs 122, 126
human symbionts 290
leaf-cutter ant fungal gardens and 349
nitrifying bacteria 502
nitrogen-fixing bacteria 499
photosynthetic bacteria 110, 111-112
species composition in Scottish pastures 362-363, see also Cyanobacteria;
Escherichia coli
Bacteroids 397
Bahamas
effects of lizard predators on spider prey 280-281
influence of island size on the number of trophic levels 484
Baikal seals 238
Balanus glandula 390, 487-488, see also Acorn barnacles
Bald eagles 490
Ballard, Robert 450
Ballare, Carlos 503
Ballast water organisms
abiotic limitations on the spread of 430-431
invasive species and 226-227, 429-430
Balloon vine (Cardiospermum corindum) 141, 142
Baltic Sea
dead zones 591
resource partitioning by cyanobacteria 318-319
Bamboos 272
Banteng (Bos javanicus) 533
Baobab trees 55
Bark beetles 24, 585
Barnacles
effects of climate change on predator-prey interactions in rocky intertidal
zones 535
intermediate disturbance hypothesis and 438
joint effects of temperature and competition on distribution 216
primary succession in rocky intertidal communities 390
resource partitioning and 433
rocky intertidal food webs and 487, 488, see also Acorn barnacles
Basal metabolic rate 92
Bascompte, Jordi 346, 347
Bases 43
Basking behavior 91
Bathymodiolus 451
Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis 16, 17, 534
Bay-breasted warbler (Setophaga castanea) 434
BDFFP.
see Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments ProjectBeachgrasses 327
Bear Brook 475
Bears
factors affecting distribution and abundance 216-217
isotopic analysis of diet 466
long-term winter sleep 94, see also Grizzly bear
Beavers 369, 548, 568
Bedstraws 313, 329
Beech forests 402
Beeches 61, 273
Bees, internal heat generation 90
Beetles
community effects of herbivory by 280
effects of sexually transmitted mites on 300
evolutionary consequences of habitat fragmentation and 559
number of parasite species 291
responses to plant defenses against herbivory 274, 275 trophic cascade in a lowland tropical forest 482-483
Behavioral ecology
defined 181
ecological effects of behavioral responses to predators 199 evolutionary approach to behavior 181-184
foraging behavior 184-190
group living 195-197,198
infanticide in lion packs 180-181, 182, 198
introduction 181
mating behavior 190-195
Beijing, dust storms 571, 572
Bell, Michael 135
Benkman, Craig 124,125
Bentgrass 144
Benthic zone
lakes 39, 69, 511
oceans 70, 74-75, 513
streams and rivers 68
Bering Strait 410
Beroe 240
Bertness, Mark 365, 387, 388-389
Beta diversity 405
Betula 504
Biddulphia sinensis 74
Big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii) 346
Bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) 132, 133-134, 151, 191
Bioaccumulation 472-473, 489-490
Biochemical defenses, against parasites 294
Biochemical reactions, effects of temperature on 86
Biocrust (biological soil crust) 494-495, 514-515 Biodiversity
adaptive radiations and 147-148
Amazon Basin 400
conservation biology and 522
defined 360-361, 523
importance of protecting 523 management of human pathogens and 446 mass extinction and 147
nature reserve design 560-564
Biodiversity hot spots 412
Biodiversity loss
contemporary rates of species loss 525, 526
from habitat loss and degradation 529-530
introduction 521
from invasive species 530-532
multiple causes of 528-529
from overexploitation 532-533
overview 524-525
from pollution, disease, and climate change 533-535
ranking species for protection 540-542
taxonomic homogenization and 526-528
Biogeochemical cycles.
see Global biogeochemical cyclesBiogeochemical “hot spots,” 553
Biogeochemistry 495-496
Biogeographic regions 408, 409-411
Biogeography
defined 402
global biogeography 407-415, 416
habitat fragmentation in the Amazon 400-401, 422-423
introduction 401
regional biogeography 416-422
spatial scale and 402-406, 407
Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project (BDFFP) 400-401, 422-423,
558
Biological nitrogen fixation 499, 500, 577, 578, see also Nitrogen fixation
Biological reserves 561
Biological soil crust (biocrust) 494-495, 514-515
Biomagnification 472-473, 489-490, 491
Biomass
assimilation efficiency and 477-478
energy flow between trophic levels and 477
net primary production and 452
net secondary production of heterotrophs 466-467
Biomass pyramids 475-476
Biomes
definition and overview of 48
freshwater biological zones 67-69 marine biological zones 69-75
terrestrial biomes 48-67, see also Terrestrial biomes
Bioremediation 122,123
Biosphere
defined 9, 48
ecological studies and 8
environmental changes and the Great Plains 47-48, 76 freshwater biological zones 67-69
introduction 48
marine biological zones 69-75
terrestrial biomes 48-67, see also Terrestrial biomes
Biotic agents of change 378-379
Biotic environment
ecological studies and 9
effects on abundance and distribution of a species 215, 216
Biotic processes, effects on population size 251
Biotic resistance 431
Bipalium everetti 272
Bird beaks/bills
competition and character displacement in Galapagos finches 319-320 morphological adaptation in 123-124,125
toolmaking and 128
Birds
acclimatization to changes in diet 126
background extinction rate 525
benefits of group living 195, 196
changes in sparrow behavior in response to the COVID-19 pandemic 184 community effects of herbivory by lesser snow geese 281-282 conservation biology, longleaf pine savanna, and the red-cockaded woodpecker 520-522, 541, 543-544 density-dependence reproduction in 252
ecological impact of species loss in 526, 527
effects of global climate change on geographic range 583
effects of global climate change on migratory species 584
effects of predation on evolution in moth populations 153 endothermy and insulation 93
extinction risks of small populations 235, 236
fear of predation and 188, 199
human-caused extinctions 525, 526
influence of edge effects on reproductive success 559
Lack clutch size 166
mating behavior and sexual selection 191
number of imperiled species 522
number of parasite species 291
optimal foraging theory and 185, 186, 187
parental investment 169,170
species diversity and resource partitioning 433-434, 435 tolerance for water loss 100
toolmaking and 106-107, 126-127, 128
trade-offs between current and delayed reproduction 169
water balance and resistance to water loss 101, see also Seabirds
Birth rates
altering in population management 258-259 density-dependent factors and 251 density-independent factors and 250 geometric population growth and 246, 247 snowshoe hare population cycles 266-267
Bison bison (American bison) 58, 76, 304, 547, 594
Biston betularia (peppered moth) 152, 153
Biting flies 123
Bjorkman, Olle 111, 113
Black bears 568
Black rush (Juncus gerardii) 365, 387-389, 526
Black Sea ecosystem
bottom-up and top-down control in 240-241
dead zones 591
eutrophication and invasive Mnemiopsis comb jellies 226-227, 230-231, 240
human activities and regime shifts 394
Mnemiopsis comb jelly as a ballast water invasive 430
Black smoker vents 450
Blackburnian warbler (Setophaga fusca) 434
Black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes) 534
Black-throated warbler (Setophaga virens) 434
Blast fishing 379
Blattella germanica (German cockroach) 182, 183
Bleaching, of corals 72
Blepharida 270, 274, 275
Blissus leucopterus (chinch bug) 207
Blister rust 568
Blood
encapsulation of parasites in insects 295
malaria-causing Plasmodium falciparum and 295-296, 297
vertebrate defenses against parasites and 294
“Blooms” of algae 463
Blowdown zone, on Mount St.
Helens 376-377, 395“Blue baby” syndrome 590
Bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) 239
Bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus) 188, 442
Body lice 290
Body size
dessication tolerance and 102
ectotherms and 90-91
effects of human harvesting on 133, 134
food requirements and 122
production efficiency in endotherms and 478
sequential hermaphroditism in clownfish and 176
sexual selection in male bighorn sheep 191
Body temperature
ectotherms 90-92
endotherms 92-94
modification by animals 89-90
modification by plants 86-89, 90
overview of organisms and the modification of 86
Boechera stricta 143-144
Bog fritillary butterfly (Proclossiana eunomia) 553
Bohadschia argus (Leopard sea cucumber) 475
Boobies 412
Bordered white moth (Bupalus piniarius) 230
Boreal biome/forests
allocation of net primary production to roots 453
biome distribution and characteristics 51, 63-64
eddy covariance estimate of net ecosystem exchange 457 effects of global climate change on net ecosystem exchange 585 global patterns of net primary production 465 human impact on 51, 64
mean residence time of nutrients 505, 506
tree species richness in 402, 403
Boreal chorus frog (Pseudacris maculata) 81
Bormann, Herb 506-507
Boron 497
Borrelia burgdorferi 557, 558
Bos javanicus (banteng) 533
Bottlenose dolphins 128-129
Bottom-up control
Black Sea ecosystem 240, 241
defined 240
Boulder fields 389-390
Boundary layer 88-89
Bouzat, Juan 139,140
Bowman, William 460
Boyce, Mark 565
Bradshaw, Anthony 564
Brain, enslaver parasites and 308
Breast milk, persistent organic pollutants and 472, 473
Brevicoryne brassicae 275, 276
Brewer, Stephen 312-313, 329
Brine shrimp 170
Bromus tectorum (cheatgrass) 515
Brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) 15-16
Brookesia stumpfii (plated leaf chameleon) 212
Brown algae 73, 204-205, 522, see also Kelp beds
Brown bear (Ursus arctos) 216-217
Brown trout (Salmo trutta) 481-482
Brucellosis 304
Brushtail possum (Trichosurus cunninghami) 195
Bryozoans 392
Bubulcus ibis ibis 229-230
Buckeye butterfly (Junonia coenia) 563
Budding 206
Buffer zones 561-562
Bufo 100
Bufo boreas 395
Bull kelp (Nereocystis luetkeana) 204
Bullhorn acacia 343-345
Bumblebees 213, 559
Bundle sheaths 116, 117
Bupalus piniarius (bordered white moth) 230
Burgess Shale 148
Burroughs, John 80
Burrowing behavior 183
Bursera 274-275
Bush beardgrass (Schizachyrium condensatum) 217
Bush lupines 270
“Bushmeat,” 532
Buston, Peter 176
Butterflies
dynamics of metapopulations 220-221
geographic range 210
habitat corridors and 563
habitat fragmentation and 553
number of parasite species 291
r-K continuum and 174
Bycatch 533
C
C3 photosynthetic pathway 115, 117, 118-119
C4 photosynthetic pathway 115-117,118, 119
Cacti
convergence in desert plant forms 56, 57
factors affecting distribution and abundance 214, 215, 216
growth form and environment 49
Cactoblastis cactorum 215, 216
Caddisflies 305
Caenorhabditis elegans 163-164
Calamagrosits 462
Calamospiza melanocorys (lark bunting) 549
Calcium carbonate 575
Calcium/Calcium ions
acid precipitation and 588
in the elemental composition of organisms 496
functions in plants 497
mean residence time 506
nitrogen saturation and 590
occlusion 509
California, invasive Caulerpa taxifolia 373
California condor (Gymnogyps californianus) 539, 540
California mussel (Mytilus californianus) 280, 328, 437, 487-488
Callaway, Ragan 337
Calvin, Melvin 110
Calvin cycle
in C4 plants 116, 117
in CAM plants 118, 119
chemosynthesis and 110
hydrothermal vent invertebrates and 467
photosynthesis and 111
Calyptogena 450
Calyptogena magnifica 469
Calyptogena pacifica 469
CAM. see Crassulacean acid metabolism
Cambodia 424
Cambrian Explosion 148
Camels 100
“Camouflage mismatch,” 161
Camp Lejeune 543
Camponotus Ieonardi 289
Canada
biological transport of pollutants 490-491
persistent organic pollutants in Inuit populations 472-473, 490
snowshoe hare population cycles 266-267, 284-286
Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis) 266, 267, 269, 285, 286
Cancer productus (red rock crab) 432
Candida 290
Canine distemper 534
Canis lupus. see Wolf
Canopy, tropical rainforests 53
Canyonlands National Park 514
Cape May warbler (Setophaga tigrina) 434
Cappuccino, Naomi 227-228
Capra ibex (ibex) 537
Capra pyrenaica pyrenaica (Pyrenean ibex) 528
Carabus violaceus 559
Carbohydrates
chemosynthesis and 109-110
energy from food and 122
photosynthesis and 110
Carbon
in the atmosphere 499
atmospheric source 499
decomposition of organic matter and 501-502
effects of global climate change on net ecosystem exchange and 585
in the elemental composition of organisms 496
functions in plants 497
global patterns of net primary production and 464
isotopes see Carbon isotopes
plant allocation of net primary production and 452
in plant and animal nutrition 496, 497
reduced levels of in grazed biocrust 514
tropical rainforests and 54
tropical rainforests and carbon sequestration 54
Carbon cycle
anthropogenic carbon release 573-575, 576
global carbon cycle 573-575
linkage to the nitrogen cycle 577
Carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere 499, see also Atmospheric carbon dioxide
C4 photosynthesis and 116-117
chemosynthesis and 109-110
crassulacean acid metabolism and 118, 119
effects of global climate change on net ecosystem exchange and 585 global carbon cycle 573-575
global climate change and 25, 26
greenhouse effect and 24, 25, 581, 582-583
a greenhouse gas 581, 582
gross primary production and 453
light compensation point of photosynthesis and 111, 112, 113 mechanisms of photosynthesis and 110, 112
methods of estimating terrestrial net primary production and 455, 457-458 photorespiration and 115
stable isotope analyses of photosynthetic pathways and 120 uptake by autotrophs 499
Carbon dioxide fixation
in chemosynthesis 109-110
in photosynthesis 110, 111, 116-117
Carbon isotopes
isotopic analyses of heterotroph diets 120-121, 466
isotopic analyses of photosynthetic pathways 120
isotopic analysis of hydrothermal vent invertebrates 469
isotopic analysis of New Caledonian crow food sources 127
in stable isotope analyses 120
Carbon monoxide 574
Carbon reactions, of photosynthesis 110, 111
Carbon tetrachloride 594
Carbonic acid 575
Carbonmitrogen (C:N) ratio
decomposition of organic matter and 501-502
effects of non-native cheatgrass on 515
of organisms 496
Carbonmutrient ratios 477
Carcinus maenas (green crab) 272, 273, 431-432
Cardiospermum corindum (balloon vine) 141, 142
Cardon 56
Carduelis carduelis (European goldfinch) 197
Caretta caretta (loggerhead sea turtle) 245, 259
Carex 504
Carex rupestris 462
Carex scopulorum 462
Caribou (Rangifer tarandus) 161
Carlsson, Nils 282-283
Carnegiea gigantea (saguaro cactus) 214, 215
Carnivores/Carnivory
antipredator defenses of prey 271-272
assimilation efficiency 478
bioaccumulation and biomagnification of pollutants 490
bottom-up or top-down control of energy flow 480 carnivorous plants 312-313, 328-329
defined 267, 466
dietary preferences 269
effects on communities 280-281
energy and biomass pyramids 476
food chemistry and 122
in food webs and interaction webs 357
mechanisms for capturing prey 271
species interactions and 268
trophic levels occupied by 474
Carotenoids 110, 111, 504
Carrion 127
Carrying capacity
defined 230, 253
estimating for the U.S. population 254-255 human population growth and 260-262
logistic population growth and 230, 253, 254
Lotka-Volterra competition model and 321, 322-323, 324
Carson, Rachel 489-490
Carson, Walter 14
Cascade Range 376
Castanea (chestnut trees) 61
Castanea dentata (American chestnut) 301
Catchments
defined 506
studies of nutrient losses 506-507, 508
Cation exchange capacity 498
Cattails 337
Cattle egrets 229-230
Cattle grazing
the Dust Bowl and 594
impact on biological soil crust 494-495, 514, 515
impact on heath communities 282, see also Livestock grazing
Caulerpa taxifolia
as an ecosystem engineer 372
as an invasive species 354-355, 372, 373
environmental conditions slowing the spread of 430-431 human activities and regime shifts 394
Caulophryne polynema (“stalked toad with many filaments”) 74
Cave bears 466
CDC. see U.S. Centers for Disease Control
Cedar Bog Lake 451
Cedar Creek Ecosystem Science Reserve 489
Cedar Creek prairie 444
Cell walls
of bacteria and fungi 96
plant water balance and 96
Cellulose 122
Central America, biodiversity loss 524-525
Centrostephanus rodgersii (long-spined sea urchin) 213
Century plant 172, 173
Ceratitis capitata (Mediterranean fruit fly) 527
Cerulean flax lily (Dianella ensifolia) 418
Cervus elaphus. see Elk
CFCs. see Chlorofluorocarbons
Chaetodipus intermedius (rock pocket mouse) 136
Chamaecrista keyensis 539
Chamaeleo 100
Chameleons 212-213
Chance, lottery and neutral models of species diversity 441-443
Channel Islands 235, 236, 420-421, 422
Chaparral 58, 506
Chapela, Ignacio 348
Chapin, Terry 502-503
Character displacement 319-320
Charnov, Eric 186
Cheaters 341
Cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) 515
Cheetahs 271
Chemical energy
food and 121-122
sources and transfer of 107-108
Chemical environment 41-43
Chemical weathering 497, 498, 499
Chemoautotrophs 467-468, 469, 502
Chemosynthesis (chemolithotrophy)
autotrophs and 108
description of 109-110
hydrothermal vent communities and 467
primary production and 452
Chen caerulescens (snow goose) 161
Chen caerulescens caerulescens (lesser snow goose) 281-282
Chesapeake Bay, dead zones 591
Chestnut blight 301
Chestnut trees (Castanea) 61, 301
Chihuahuan Desert 56
Childhood asthma 594
Chilean cedar (Austrocedrus) 63
Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) 106, 294
China, dust storms 571, 572
Chinch bug (Blissus Ieucopterus) 207
Chinook salmon 44
Chipmunks 326
Chiromantis 100
Chiromantis xerampelina (southern foam-nest tree frog) 100
Chlamydomonas reinhardtii 162
Chloephaga melanoptera (Andean goose) 137
Chlorine 496, 497
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 582, 592, 593, 594
Chlorophyll
chlorophyll a 111
chlorophyll b 111
chlorophyll f 111-112
internal recycling of nutrients by plants 504
methods of estimating aquatic net primary production 458-459 methods of estimating terrestrial net primary production 454, 455, 456 photosynthesis and 110, 111
Chloroplasts
acclimatization of plant photosynthesis to light levels and 111, 112 autotrophic animals 108, 109
photosynthesis and 110
Cholera 290, 293
Choosy females 181, 192-193
Chronic stress 286-287
Chrysolina quadrigemina 280
Chrysopelea ornata (golden tree snake) 271
Chthamalus 438
Chthamalus dalli 390
Chthamalus stellatus 314, 325-326
Cichlids 197, 530
Ciliated bands 171
Ciliates 271
Cladophora glomerata 370
Clams
burrowing 72
hydrothermal vent communities 450, 467-468, 469
Clark's nutcracker 568
Clays 497-498
Clematis fremontii 209-210, 211
Clements, Frederick 382, 383
Cleome droserifolia 229
Cleome gynandra 116
Climate
control of terrestrial net primary production 459-460
control of where and how organisms live 24-25 defined 24, 580
effects of volcanoes on 380
factors affecting regional climate 34-37
global climate patterns 32-34
global energy balance 25-26
gross primary production and 452
influence on decomposition of organic matter 500, 501 influence on soil development 498-499
latitudinal gradients in species diversity and 415, 416
Pacific Decadal Oscillation and 44, 45 species distribution and 82, 83 weather and 23-24
Climate change. see Global climate change
Climate diagrams 52
Climate envelope 82
Climate variation
causes of seasonality 38-39
defined 24
distinguished from climate change 580
ecology and 45
factors affecting 24
salmon abundance and 22-23, 44
Climate zones
atmospheric circulation cells and 27-28
a determinant of terrestrial biomes 50
Climatic water deficit 250-251
Climax community 382
Clines 143
Clones 162, 206
Closterium 69
Clouds, formation 27
Clownfish 157-158, 176, 177
Club mosses 103
Clumped dispersion 210
Clusia 119
Clutch size 166
Coastal biomes 535
Cobalt 497
Cobblestone beach communities 345
Coccipolipus hippodamiae 300
Cockroaches 231
Cocoon webs 307-308
Cod (Gadus morhua)
effects of commercial fishing and overexploitation on 132, 532 food quality for sea lions 479
Coevolution
defined 298
fig-fig wasp mutualism 336
hydrothermal vent clams and symbiotic bacteria 469
parasite-host coevolution 297-300
predator-prey interactions and 148-149
Cogongrass (Imperata cylindrica) 544
Cohort life tables 256-258
Cold air drainage 36
Cold environments, endotherms and 92-94
Coleophora Caespititiella 440
Coleophora Cratipennella 440
Collared flycatcher (Ficedula albicollis) 169
Collared lemming (Dicrostonyx groenlandicus) 232, 234
Collectors 68
Colon 125
Colonization 219-221
Colorado Plateau 494-495, 514, 596-597
Columbia River 44
Comb jellies
invasive Mnemiopsis in the Black Sea 226-227, 230-231, 240 outbreaks 230
Commensalisms
defined 268, 333
effects on distribution 345
as positive interactions 334
prevalence of 335
Commercial fishing
blast fishing 379
impact on fish populations 132-133, 532
invasive Mnemiopsis comb jellies and the Black Sea anchovy industry 227, 240
top-down control in the Black Sea ecosystem and 240
Common buckeye butterfly (Junonia coenia) 563
Common carp 490
Common houseflies 123
Common tench 490
Communities
alternative stable states 392-394
defined 9, 355-356
ecological studies and 8
effects of parasites on 304-305, 306
effects of positive interactions on 345-346
effects of predation on 280-283
examples of 9
food webs 357-358
global climate change and the emergence of novel communities 586 interactions of multiple species 363-372
introduction 355
invasive Caulerpa taxifolia 354-355, 372, 373 stability and 392, see also Community stability structure of see Community structure ways of delineating 356-358
Community change
agents of change 378-380
alternative stable states 392-394
basics of succession 384, 381-383
introduction 378
mechanisms of succession 384-392
Mount St. Helens example 376-377, 380
Community composition
changes from increased UVB 593
effects of global climate change on 584-585
Community functions
defined 443
species diversity and 443-445
Community membership
environmental conditions as limiting factors 430-431 global climate change and species invasions 431-432 overview 428-429
species interactions 431, 433
species supply 429-430
Community stability
alternative stable states 392-394
defined 392, 443
species diversity and 443-444
Community structure
community functions and 443
defined 358
effects of parasites on 305, 306
keystone species and 368-369
rank abundance curves 361-362
species accumulation curves 361-362, 363
species composition 362-363
species diversity as a measure of 358-361
Compensation 273, 274
Competition
altering the outcome of 324-328
carnivorous plants 312-313, 328-329
classification of plant life histories and 174, 175
clownfish life history and 177
competitive coexistence 317-320
competitive displacement and the dynamic equilibrium model 438-439
competitive networks 366
defined 267, 313
effects of global warming on competitive interactions between non-native species 327
effects of mycorrhizae on competition between grasses 346
effects of parasites on 304, 305
effects of predators and herbivores on 280
general features of 314-317
group living and 197
impact on barnacle distribution 216
introduction 313-314
Lotka-Volterra competition model 321-324
Menge-Sutherland model and 440, 441
predicting the outcome of 321-322, 323
resource mediation and species coexistence 436-437 species interactions and 268
Competition coefficients 321, 322-324
Competitive coexistence
definition and description of 317, 318-319
Lotka-Volterra competition model and 322-324
resource partitioning and character displacement 319-320
Competitive displacement 438-439
Competitive exclusion
definition and description of 317, 318
fugitive species and 328
Lotka-Volterra competition model and 322, 323
species coexistence and 437
Competitive exclusion principle 317, 324, 329
Competitive networks 366
Competitive plants 174, 175
Complementarity hypothesis 444-445
Complex life cycles 164-165
Conductance 95n2
Conduction (conductive heat transfer)
defined 25
energy balance of organisms and 86, 87, 89
Conifers
crossbills and 124,125
effects of global climate change on tree mortality rates 250-251, see also
Boreal biome/forests; Pine forests; Temperate evergreen forests
Connections in nature
benefits to humans of tropical rainforest diversity 423-424
biological transport of pollutants 490-491
bottom-up and top-down control of ecosystems 240-241
chronic stress and predator-prey interactions 286-287
climate variation and ecology 45
concept of 3
dessication tolerance, body size, and rarity 102-103
dust as a vector of ecological impacts 596-597
ecological effects of behavioral responses to predators 199
ecological footprints 262
ecosystem management and prescribed burning 544
effects of global climate change on geographic ranges 213
effects of leaf-cutter ants on ecosystems 349
emerging diseases and 6, 7
evolutionary links between enslaver parasites and their hosts 309 future changes in the Yellowstone landscape 568-569 human impact on evolution 152-153
kelp forest-urchin barren dynamics 222
key terms for studying 9-11
long-term ecological research 76-77
managing pathogens by managing biodiversity 446
mechanisms supporting species coexistence 329
nutrients, disturbance, and invasive species 514-515 primary succession and mutualisms 396-397
stopping invasive Caulerpu taxifolia 373
succession and evolution in hydrothermal vent communities 468-469 territoriality, competition, and life history 177
tool use as adaption or learned behavior 128-129
understanding amphibian deformities and decline 3-6
Connell, Joseph 325-326, 383, 437-438
Conocephalus spartinae 440
Conservation biology
declining biodiversity 524-528
defined 522-523
demographic models and 538-539
ecosystem management and prescribed burning 544
ex situ conservation 539, 540
forensics in 537-538
gap analysis 549
genetic analyses and genetic rescues 536-538
importance of protecting biodiversity 523
introduction 521
key practices in nature reserve design 560-564
Iongleaf pine savanna and the red-cockaded woodpecker 520-522, 541, 543
544
number of threatened species 522
origins and development of 523-524
protection of surrogate species 541-542
ranking species for protection 540-542
threats to diversity 528-535
a value-based discipline 524
Consumers
defined 10, 11
energy and biomass pyramids 476
in food webs and interaction webs 357
influence on the number of trophic levels 483, 484
Consumption efficiency 477, 478
Continental climates 34, 35
Continental drift 217, 409-410, 411
Contraband ivory 537-538
Control group 3, 12, 13, 14
Controlled experiments, on amphibian decline 3-4
Convection (convective heat transfer)
energy balance of organisms and 86, 87, 88-89
global energy balance and 25
Convergence, plant growth forms and 50
Cook, Craig 88
Cooper, William S. 385
Cooperative breeders 543
Copepods 69
Copper 497
Coprophagy 125-126
Coral reef fishes
clownfish and life histories 157-158, 176, 177
complex life cycles 164
lottery and neutral models of species diversity 441, 443
niche shifts 172
service mutualisms 345-346
Coral reefs
agents of change 378, 379
bleaching 72
competitive networks and 366
description and characteristics of 9, 72, 73
detritivores 475
effects of global climate change on community composition 584
impact of human activities on 72
service mutualisms 345-346
Corals
asexual reproduction 162
climate change and the spread of coral diseases 306
mutualism with symbiotic algae 335, 340, 345
number of imperiled species 522
ocean acidification and 575
Cordgrass 387-389
Cordilleras 36
Core natural areas 560-562
Coriolis effect 28, 29
Cormorants 412, 490
Corn (Zea mays) 496
Corn smut (Ustilago maydis) 292
Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) 184, 290, 291, 293, 427
Corophium volutator 301, 305, 306, 526
Cortisol 286-287
Corvus moneduloides (New Caledonian crow) 106-107, 126-127, 128
Corystes Cassivelaunus (sand crab) 171
Costa Rica 563
Cottonwoods 566-567
COVID-19 pandemic. see Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2
Cowbirds 559
Cowie, Richard 186
Cowie, Robert 527-528
Cowles, Henry Chandler 381-382, 383, 385
Coyotes 267, 269, 286, 474
Crabs
antipredator behaviors 188
cuticle resistance to water loss 101
hydrothermal vent communities 451, 468
planktonic larvae 171
primary succession in rocky intertidal communities and 389-390 snail defenses against predation 272, 273
species invasions enhanced by climate change 431-432 tolerance for water loss 100
Crassula ovata 119
Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) 118-119
Creosote bush (Larrea tridentata) 59, 214-215
Crickets 289, 308
Crocodiles 91
Crocodylus porosus (saltwater crocodile) 91
Cronartium ribicola 568
Crossbills 124,125
Crows, toolmaking 106-107, 126-127, 128
Crustaceans, number of imperiled species 522
Crutzen, Paul 583
Cryonics 80
Cryphonectria parasitica 301
Crypsis 91, 271, 272
Cryptocentrus 339-340
Cryptocerus punctulatus (wood-eating cockroach) 336
Crypts 349
Culex pipiens 140, 144
Cumulus clouds 27
Currents, as agents of change 379
Curvularia protuberata 340, 345
Cuscuta (dodder) 108, 291
Cuscuta europaea (European dodder) 108
Cuticle
plant water balance and 98
resistance to water loss in animals 101
Cyanobacteria
biological soil crust and 494, 495
chlorophyll f 111-112
global nitrogen cycle and 578
net primary production in lakes and 462
nitrogen fixation in biocrusts 514
nitrogen fixation in lakes 511
nitrogen fixation in marine ecosystems 513
nitrogen-fixing symbioses and 499
resource partitioning by 318-319
Cycads 537
Cyclops 69
Cyclorana australis (northern snapping frog) 100
Cyclotella 434-435
Cyprinodon diabolis (Devil's Hole pupfish) 210
D
Daily torpor 93
Dall mountain sheep 257
Dambrine, Etienne 554-555
Dams
impact on lotic ecosystems 68
unanticipated effects of 6
Dandelions 206
Daphnia (water fleas) 69, 253
Daphnia pulex 253
Daphoenositta chrysoptera (orange-winged sittella) 128
Darwin, Charles
on carnivorous plants 312
on competition 317
on disturbance and species diversity 436 on indirect species interactions 364
on sexual selection 190-191 theory of evolution and 134, 410
DDT 490, 491, 534
Dead zones 463, 511, 591
Death rates
altering in population management 258-259
effects of density-dependent factors on 251, 252-253
effects of global climate change on tree mortality rates 250-251
geometric population growth and 246
life tables and 255
snowshoe hare population cycles 266-267
survivorship curves and 256
Deciduous forests, temperate 51
Deciduousness 49
Decomposition
effects of lignin on 502-503
energy flow through detritus 474-475
food webs and 358
in lakes 511
mean residence time of nutrients and 505, 506 nutrient recycling and 500-502
in ocean sediments 513
Decorator crab (Libinia dubia) 188
Deepwater Horizon oil spill 122, 123
Deer
facultative positive interactions and 336-337
Great Plains and 76
herbivory and 270
reproductive potential of red deer females and males 194
trade-offs between reproduction and survival 145
Deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) 183, 231-232, 427
Defensive spines 171
Defensive symbionts 294-295, 296
Deforestation
anthropogenic carbon release and 574
boreal forests 64
dust storms and 595
edge effects and 558
global nitrogen cycle and 578
habitat fragmentation in tropical rainforests and 400-401, 422-423
impact on atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations 458
impact on lotic ecosystems 68
temperate deciduous forests 61
temperate evergreen forests 63
tropical rainforests 53, 54
tropical seasonal forests 55
vegetation's effect on regional climate and 36-37, see also Forest
fragmentation; Logging
Delayed density dependence 232, 234
DeLucia, Evan 574-575
Demographic models 538-539
Demographic Stochasticity 236-237, 238
Denaturing 86
Dendrobates tinctorius (poison dart frog) 138
Dendroctonus ponderosae (mountain pine beetle) 230, 231, 458, 568, 569, 585
Dendroica 434
Dengue fever 324
Denitrification
defined 502
global nitrogen cycle and 577, 578
in marine sediments 513
in streams and rivers 510
Density-dependent factors 250, 251-253
Density-independent factors 250-251
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), effects of UVB on 593
Depth of clarity 512, 513
Descent with modification 10, 133, 134,135, 147
Deschampsia 462
Desert ironweed (Olneya tesota) 336
Desertification 57
Deserts
animal resistance to water loss 101
biome distribution and characteristics 51, 55-56 competition between ants and rodents 315-316, 317 convergence in plant forms 56, 57
dust storms and 595
effects of atmospheric circulation on precipitation in 27, 34 facultative positive interactions 336
food webs 485, 486
global patterns of net primary production 465
human impact on 51, 57
overview of energy flow in 473
patterns of precipitation and temperature 50
phenotypic plasticity and desert trees 160
plant allocation of net primary production to roots 453 principle threats to 535
salinization 42-43
trophic levels in 474
Dessication tolerance 102-103
Detection function 208
Detritivores
assimilation efficiency 478
decomposition of litter and 500
defined 108, 466
food webs and 358
trophic level occupied by 474
Detritus
assimilation efficiency of detritivores and 478 decomposition and mineralization 500-502, 503 defined 121, 474
energy and biomass pyramids 476
energy flow through 474-475
food webs and 358
in streams and rivers 68
Deuterium 120
Devil's Hole pupfish (Cyprinodon diabolis) 210
Dewailly, Eric 472
Diachasma alloeum 149
Dianella ensifolia (cerulean flax lily) 418
Diarrhea 293
Diatoms
asymmetrical competition and 315, 316
pelagic zone phytoplankton 74
species coexistence and resource partitioning 434-435
Dichanthelium 345
Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) 473
Dicrostonyx groenlandicus (collared lemming) 232, 233
Diets
digestive adaptations of animals and 125-126
preferences of carnivores and herbivores 269-270
stable isotope analyses of 120-121, 127, 466
Steller sea lion population decline and 479-480
tool use by New Caledonian crows and 127, see also Food
Digestion
assimilation efficiency and 477-478
in heterotrophs 124-126
Dilution effect 196
Dimensionless life history analysis 175-176
Dimensionless ratio 175
Dipodomys (kangaroo rats) 101
Direct development 165
Direct species interactions
definition and overview of 363, 364
indirect effects of trophic facilitations and 365
Directional selection 137,138, 151, 152
Discrete time periods 246
Diseases
biodiversity loss and 533-534
climate change and the spread of 305-306, 307
managing by biodiversity 446
models of host-pathogen population dynamics to control the spread of 302304, see also Emergent diseases; Human health; specific diseases
Dispersal
barriers to between oceans 411
biotic exchange between habitats and 550-551 community membership and 429-430
defined 209
effects on distribution 217-218
equilibrium theory of island biogeography and 419-422 exponential population growth and 229-230
a factor in organisms' responses to global climate change 586-587 influence of edge effects on 559
interaction with predation to influence species diversity 442 Menge-Sutherland model and 440-441
small-sized offspring and 170,171, see also Immigration
Dispersal limitation 218
Dispersion 210
Disruptive selection 137, 138
Distance methods 207, 208
Distichlis spicata (spike grass) 387-389, 440
Distribution
defined 205
dispersal and 217-218
effects of climate on 24
effects of evolutionary and geologic history on 216-217
effects of physical environment and competition on 325-326 effects of positive interactions on 345 habitat suitability and 214-216, 217
kelp forest-urchin barren dynamics 204-205, 213, 215, 221-222, 223 patterns of 209-213
physical environment and 82, 83
Disturbance
classification of plant life histories and 174-175
defined 216, 379
destruction of biocrust and 515
effects of climate on periodic disturbances 25
influence on competition between species 328
influence on distribution 216, 217
influence on the number of trophic levels 484
interactions with landscape heterogeneity 553-555
intermediate disturbance hypothesis and its elaborations 437-439 models of succession and 384
Mount St. Helens eruption 376-377, 380
species diversity and 436, 437-439
spectrum of 380
Divaricating shrubs 403, 404
Dodder (Cuscuta) 108, 291
Dolphins 144
Donnelly, C. P. 479-480
Dormancy 85, 170
Dorset heathlands 211
Doubling time 248, 260
Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) 62, 63, 168, 395
Douglas fir forests 402, 559
Doushantuo Formation 148
Downwelling 29
Dracaena cinnabari (dragon tree) 60
Dragon tree (Dracaena cinnabari) 60
Dragonflies 98
Dreissena polymorpha (zebra mussel) 430, 530
Drosophila
defenses against wasp parasitoids 295
effects of bacterial symbiont on fruit fly reproductive success 343, 344
trade-offs in host-parasite systems and 300
Drosophila melanogaster
clines 143
protective egg laying behavior 181, 198
trade-offs between reproduction and survival 167-168
Drosophila neotestacea 296, 344
Drosophila pseuodobscura 146
Drosophila subobscura 143
Droughts
dust storms and 571-572, 595
North Atlantic Oscillation and 40
Dry deposition 508, 588
Dry environments
plant water balance and 98, see also Deserts Dry forests 217, see also Tropical dry forests Dryas 396
Dryas drummondii 385
Dryas stage 387, 385, 386
Duckweed 206
Dust
distribution of loess soils 595, 596
dust storms 571-572, 594-595 global phosphorus cycle 578, 579 global sulfur cycle 579, 580 global warming and 583
nutrient inputs to marine ecosystems 463, 513 retention of by biocrusts 514
as a vector of ecological impacts 596-597
Dust Bowl 76, 571-572, 594-595
Dwarf lupine (Lupinus lepidus) 395, 396
Dyer, Lee 482-483
Dynamic equilibrium model 438-439
Early successional species 381
Earth
atmospheric and oceanic circulation 26-32
axis tilt and seasonality 38-39
biosphere 48, see also Biosphere
global climate patterns 32-34
global energy balance 25-26
Earthworms 101
Easterlies 29
Eastern tallgrass prairie 76
Eberhard, William 307-308
Echeveria derenbergii 119
Echinoderms 171
Eco-evolutionary feedback 151
Ecological experiments
on amphibian decline 3-5, 12
design and analysis of 12, 13, 14
scientific method and 15
spatial scale 13
Ecological footprint 255, 261-262
Ecological interactions
evolution and 150-151
and evolutionary links between enslaver parasites and their hosts 309 speciation and 149, 150
Ecological Responses to the 1980 Eruption of Mount St. Helens (Dale et al.) 394
Ecological restoration 563-564
Ecological Society of America 523, 565
Ecological success 82
Ecologists' Union 523
Ecology
amphibian decline studies see Amphibian deformities and decline
climate variation and 45
defined 7
differing public and professional views of 7-8
early studies of succession and 381-383
introduction 2
joint effects of ecology and evolution 150-151
key terms in 9-11
levels of study from individuals to the biosphere 8-9
methods in answering ecological questions 12-15,16
our constantly changing understanding of 14-15
scale of ecological studies 8
Ecology (journal) 451
Ecoregions 565
Ecosystem engineers
defined 368
invasive Caulerpa taxifolia as 372
keystone species as 369
negative impact of parasites on 305, 306
Ecosystem management
collaborative decision making and 565
defined 565
human component as an integral part of 566
introduction 548
limitations and drawbacks 566
northern spotted owl conflict and 564
process of 565-566
wolf reintroduction in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem 547-548, 565-567
Ecosystem services
importance to humans 523
tropical rainforests and 423-424
Ecosystems
catchment studies of nutrient losses from 506-507, 508
continuing effects of global climate change on 587
defined 9
ecological studies and 8
effects of invasive species on 530-531
effects of mycorrhizae on 346, 348
energy flow and 451, see also Energy; Energy flow
hydrothermal vent communities 450-451, 467-469, see also Hydrothermal
vent communities
influence of ecosystem size on the number of trophic levels 484
nutrient cycling and long-term ecosystem development 507, 509
origin of concept 451
Ecotypes 84
Ectenagena elongata 469
Ectomycorrhizae 334, 335
Ectoparasites 291-292, 293
Ectopistes migratorius (passenger pigeon) 523
Ectotherms
assimilation efficiency 478
defined 89-90
production efficiency 478
temperature regulation and tolerance in 90-92
Ecuador 524
EDCs. see Endocrine-disrupting contaminants
Eddy covariance (eddy correlation) 457-458
Edge effects 422-423
Edmondson, W. T. 512
Eelgrass (Zostera) 463
Effective population size
defined 235
extinction risks for small populations 235-238, 239
Eggs
dormancy and 170
gamete size and parental care 192-193
parental investment 169-170
size-number trade-offs in lizards 166-167
Eglin Air Force Base 543
Egt gene 308
Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus) 128
Ehleringer, Jim 87-88
Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth) 283
El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) 77
Elephant seals 194
Elephantiasis 290
Elephants
effects of hunting on population size 251
effects of ivory poaching on 133
illegal ivory trade and forensic conservation biology 537-538
Elevation
effect on continental temperatures 32-33
global climate change and elevational shifts in vegetation zones 586
relative neighbor effect 338-339, see also Highlands/High elevations
Elk (Cervus elaphus)
human impact on the Great Plains and 76
impact of wolves on the foraging behavior of 187
wolf reintroduction in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem 548, 565-567
El-Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) 40, 41
Elton, Charles 382-383, 443, 488
Elysia crispata (lettuce sea slug) 109
Embryos, dormancy and 170
Emergence hot spots 446
Emergent diseases
human actions on the environment and 6, 7
managing by biodiversity 446
species diversity and 427-428, 445-446
Emergent trees 53
Emigration
defined 209
effects of density-dependent factors on 251
Empidonax traillii extimus (southwestern willow flycatcher) 527
Encapsulation, parasite defenses against 295
Encelia 87-88, 89
Encelia californica 88, 89
Encelia farinosa 87, 88, 89
Encelia frutescens 88, 89
Encounter rate 269
Endangered species 258-259
Endemics 210, 403
Endocladia muricata 390
Endocrine-disrupting contaminants (EDCs) 534
Endoparasites
advantages and disadvantages of endoparasitism 293
counterdefenses against encapsulation 295
counterdefenses and the Plasmodium life cycle 295-296, 297 description of 292-293
host defenses against 293-294
Endophytes 340
Endosperm 170
Endotherms
assimilation efficiency 478
“burning” of chemical energy 107
defined 89-90
production efficiency 478
temperature regulation and tolerance in 92-94
Energy
autotrophy 109-113,114
food and 121-122
heterotrophy 121-126
introduction 107
optimal foraging theory and 184-187
photosynthetic pathways 114-121, see also Photosynthesis
primary production 452-465, see Net primary production; Primary production
secondary production 465-467
sources of 107-108,109
toolmaking and foraging by New Caledonian crows 106-107, 126-127, 128
water movement along energy gradients 95
Energy balance
ectotherms 90-92
endotherms 92-94
modification by animals 89-90
modification by plants 86-89, 90
overview of organisms and the modification of 86
Energy efficiency 477, see also Trophic efficiency
Energy flow
bioaccumulation of persistent organic pollutants 472-473, 489-490 bottom-up or top-down control of 480
ecosystems and 451
feeding relationships 474-475
food webs 485-489
introduction 473
in lakes 451
persistent organic pollutants and 472-473
through detritus 474-475
trophic cascades 480-485
between trophic levels 475-480
Energy pyramids 475-476
England
acid precipitation and 587
heathlands and habitat fragmentation 211-212
English bluebell (Hyacinthoides non-scripta) 218
Enhydra lutris. see Sea otter
Enslaver parasites 289-290, 293, 307-308, 309
ENSO. see El-Nino Southern Oscillation
Entamoeba 290
Entamoeba histolytica 293
Enterobius 290
Enteroctopus dofleini (giant Pacific octopus) 172
Environment. see Abiotic environment; Biotic environment; Physical environment
Environmental science 7
Environmental stochasticity 237-238, 239
Environmental variation
dessication tolerance 102-103
energy see Energy
freeze tolerance in frogs 80-81, 101-102
individuals and acclimatization 82-84
organisms and variation in temperature 85-94 populations and adaptation 84-85 species distribution and 82, 83
tolerance and avoidance as responses to 81
Enzymes, effects of temperature on 86
Eotetranychus sexmaculatus (six-spotted mite) 278-279
Epilimnion 39, 40
Epinephelus striatus (Nassau grouper) 172
Epiphytes 53, 118, 119
Equilibrium theory of island biogeography 419-422
Equisetum 148
Eriophorum 504
Erwinia carotovora 292
Erynephala maritima 440
Escherichia coli (E. coli)
competition and character displacement 320
growth rate 249
symbiont with vent clams 469
Esfenvalerate 6
Esovopsis 348-349
Espeletia (frailejon) 67
Estes, James 222
Estuaries
description and characteristics of 70
effects of nutrients on net primary production 462-463 food webs and climate change 371-372
nutrient input from rivers 512
Ethiopian biogeographic region 409, 410
Etiella behrii (lucerne seed web moth) 431
‘Eua Island 526
Eucallipterus tiliae (lime aphid) 270
Eucalypts (Eucalpytus) 63, 423
Eucalyptus forests 557
Euglandina rosea 528
Eukaryotes, fossil record of 148
Eumetopias jubatus (Steller sea lion) 479-480
Euphausia Crystallorophias 186,187
Euplectes progne (long-tailed widowbird) 191
Eupomacentrus apicalis 441, 443
Eurasian oystercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus) 185-186
Euroleon nostras 165
Europe, continental drift and 410, 411
European Alps
Asian dust storms and 595
effects of global climate change on species ranges 583, 584
European beachgrass (Ammophila arenaria) 327
European cave bear (Ursus spelaeus) 466
European dodder (Cuscuta europaea) 108
European goldfinch (Carduelis carduelis) 197
European green crab. see Green crab
European green lizard (Lacerta viridis) 192-193
European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) 297-298
Eurosta 138
Eutamias. see Tamias
Eutrophic waters 511
Eutrophication
anthropogenic 512, 513
Black Sea ecosystem and invasive Mnemiopsis comb jellies 226-227, 240
natural process of 511-512
nitrogen deposition and 591
Evaporation
energy balance of animals 89
latent heat transfer and 86
Evapotranspiration
defined 36
environmental effects of deforestation and 37
plant energy balance and 87
Evening primrose (Oenothera biennis) 151
Evergreen broad-leaved trees 49
Evergreen shrubs 48
Evolution
adaptation and 10
adaptive evolution 141-144,145
allele frequency change and 133-134
defined 10, 133-134,135,136
descent with modification and natural selection 134,135,136
effects of evolutionary history on distribution and abundance 216-217
effects of human activities on 132-134, 151-153
evolutionary approach to animal behavior 181-184
evolutionary consequences of habitat fragmentation 559 evolutionary history of life 145-149
evolutionary links between enslaver parasites and their hosts 309
evolutionary responses to global climate change 143-144 introduction 133
joint effects of ecology and evolution 150-151
of life cycles 169-173
long-term patterns of 146-149
mechanisms of 136-140
natural selection and 10-11
plant-herbivore interactions and 275-276
of populations 134
Alfred Russel Wallace and 410
Evolutionary trees 146,147
Ex situ conservation 539, 540
Exoskeleton 101
Experimental group 3, 12, 13, 14
Experimental Lakes Area (Ontario) 461-462
Exploitation competition 314
Exponential population growth
definition and description of 229-230, 246, 247-248
effects of density on 249-253
geometric growth and 246, 247
logistic growth and 254
Exponential population growth rate (r)
definition and description of 247
effects of density of 250, 252, 253
growth by multiplication and 248-249, 253
limits to 249
methods of estimating 247, 248, 258, 259
using to determine doubling time 248, see also Population growth rates
Extent 552
Extinction rates
background extinction rate 525
contemporary rates of species loss 525, 526
species diversity in the tropics and 414
Extinction vortex 235, 237, 525-526
Extinctions
amphibian decline and 1, 2
biodiversity loss and 521, see also Biodiversity loss
caused by parasites 301
competitive exclusion and 317, 318, 319
effects of humans on 152-153
equilibrium theory of island biogeography and 419-422
food web instability and 488
global climate change and 153, 346, 347, 535, 584, 586, 587
habitat fragmentation and local extinctions 557
incremental biological decline and 525-526, 527
mass extinctions 147, 149, 152-153
megafauna extinction in North America 47-48, 76
metapopulations and the dynamics of extinction and colonization 219-221 population fluctuations and 235
risks to small populations 235-238, 239
species diversity and a balance with speciation 146, 147
F
FACE experiments 574-575
Facilitation 333, see also Positive interactions
Facilitation model of succession
description of 384, 383
importance in early stages of succession 391-392 primary succession in Glacier Bay 386-387
primary succession in rocky intertidal communities 390 secondary succession in a salt marsh 387-389
Facultative CAM plants 118-119
Facultative positive interactions 336-337, 340-341
Fagus sylvatica (beech tree) 61
Fallopiajaponica 360
Fallopia sachalinensis 360
Fallopia x bohemica 360
Farrell, Terence 390
Fasciola 290
Fats, energy from food and 122
Faults 409
Fear of predators 188, 199
Feathers 93
Feces. see Coprophagy
Fecundity
calculating from cohort life tables 257, 258
human life table data 260
net reproductive rate and 257-258
trade-offs with survivorship 167-168
Females
choosy female concept 181, 192-193
infanticide and 180, 198
mating behavior 190-195, see also Mating behavior
mating systems and 194-195
reproductive potential of 194
Ferns, number of imperiled species 522
Ferrell, William 27
Ferrell cells 27, 28, 33
Ferrous iron 109
Fertilizers
amphibian decline and 6,17
effects of iron fertilization on marine net primary production 463-464
effects on terrestrial net primary production 460-461
global nitrogen cycle and 577, 578
global phosphorus cycle 578, 579
human impact on evolution and 152
impact on lotic ecosystems 68
Fiber 121-122
Ficedula albicollis (collared flycatcher) 169
Field, Chris 464
Field experiments
on amphibian decline 4-5, 12
design of 14
spatial scale 13
Field gentian (Gentianella campestris) 273, 274
Field voles 249
Fig-fig wasp mutualism 336
Fight-or-flight response 286
Finches 124, see also Galapagos finches
Finite rate of increase 247
Fire tree (Morella faya) 418
Fire(s)
boreal forests and 64
ecosystem management and prescribed burning 544
effects of grasses on the occurrence of fires in Hawaiian dry forests 217 Iongleaf pine savanna and 520
long-term research on fire and tallgrass prairies 77 Mediterranean-type shrublands and 59
montane grasslands and 66
non-native cheatgrass in grasslands and 515
savannas and 54, 66, 520
suppression in ecological restoration 563
temperate evergreen forests and 63
temperate grasslands and 57, see also Forest fires
First-order streams 67
Fishes
biological transport of pollutants 491
clownfish life history 157-158, 176
competition and character displacement 320
context dependence of species interactions in stream communities 370 descent with modification 135
effects of commercial fishing on 132-133
habitat mutualisms 339-340
heat generation in tuna 91
impact of invasive predators on biodiversity 530
impact of predators on the foraging behavior of 188
impact of the overexploitation of top-level predators 532-533
number of imperiled species 522
number of parasite species 291
Shag River trophic cascade and 481-482
skin resistance to water loss 101
speciation reversal 152
Steller sea lion population decline and 479-480
taxonomic homogenization 528
water balance in 99-100, see also Cod; Commercial fishing; Coral reef fishes; Guppies
Fitness
defined 159
group living and 197
life history and 159
mating systems and 194-195
Fixation, of alleles 137
Fixation of carbon dioxide. see Carbon dioxide fixation
Flagship species 541, 542
Flame retardants 534
Flatworms 272
Fleas 292
Flecker, Alexander 481-482
Flies, mouthparts 123
Florida
ecosystem management and prescribed burning 544
population viability analysis and management of Chamecrista keyensis 539
Florida panther (Puma concolor coryi) 536
Flour beetles (Tribolium) 239, 252-253, 304, 305
Flowering tree forests 402, 403
Flowers, fig-fig wasp mutualism 336
Fluxes
in global biogeochemical cycles 572-573
global carbon cycle 573-574
global nitrogen cycle 577-578
global phosphorus cycle 578, 579
global sulfur cycle 579, 580
FLUXNET 458
Focal species 542
Food
availability and chemistry of 121-122
digestion and assimilation of 124-126
effect of food resources on habitat suitability 215
group living and competition for food 197
influence on the number of trophic levels 483
isotopic analyses of heterotroph food sources 120-121, 127, 466
New Caledonian crows and toolmaking 106-107, 126-127, 128 snowshoe hare population cycles and 267, 284-286
Steller sea lion population decline and 479-480
strategies for obtaining 122-124
trophic efficiency and 477-478, see also Diets; Foraging behavior
Food webs
complexity of 485-486 context dependence in river food webs 370 definition and characteristics of 357, 358, 485 desert food webs 485, 486 effects of biodiversity loss on 526
estuarine food webs and climate change 371-372 factors affecting stability in 488-489 interaction strengths 487-488
introduction 473
keystone species and 487-488 persistent organic pollutants and 472-473
Foraging behavior
antipredator behaviors of prey 188-190 benefits of group living and 196-197
ecological effects of behavioral responses to predators and 199 effects of predators on 187-188
group living and competition for food 197
optimal foraging theory 184-187 toolmaking by New Caledonian crows 106-107, 126-127, 128
Foraminiferans 584-585
Forbs 49, 53
Forensics, in conservation biology 537-538
Forest fires
effects of global climate change on 585
impact on landscape patterns 554
Forest fragmentation
consequences for human health 557, 558
edge effects and 558, 559
reversibility of 556-557
Forestomach 126
Forests
acid rain and 500
biodiversity loss and 524-525
biogeographic variation in species diversity and composition 402-404 changes in net primary production during ecosystem development 454 commensalism and “forest specialists,” 345
effects of acid precipitation on 587, 588-589
effects of global climate change on community composition 585
effects of global climate change on tree mortality rates 250-251
effects of landscape structure on atmospheric deposition in 553
effects of species invasions on species-area curves 418
effects of tropospheric ozone on 594
elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide levels and 574-575
facultative positive interactions 336-337
methods of estimating net primary production 454, see also specific forest types
Fort Benning 543
Fort Bragg 520-522, 543-544
Fort Polk 543
Fort Stewart 543
Fossil fuels
acid precipitation and 587-589
anthropogenic carbon release and 573, 574
global nitrogen cycle and 577, 578
impact of fossil fuel extraction on biocrusts 495 industrial nitrogen fixation and 499 nitrogen deposition and 587, 589
Fossil record 146-147, 148-149
Foundation species
commensalisms and 335
context dependence of species interactions and 369-370
defined 368
Four Corners region 231-232, 427
Frailejon (Espeletia) 67
France, landscape legacies 554-555
Francis, Robert 22, 23, 44
Francis Marion National Forest 543
Frankia 396, 499
Free-air CO2 enrichment (FACE) experiments 574-575
Freeze tolerance
in ectotherms 92
in frogs 80-81, 101-102
French Guiana 553
Freshwater ecosystems
factors affecting lake communities 68-69
factors affecting stream and river communities 67-68 overview 67
principle threats to 535
taxonomic homogenization of fishes 528
variation in oxygen concentrations 43
water balance in animals and 99-100
Frigatebirds 412
Frogs
amphibian decline and 1, 3-5, 6, 15-16 freeze tolerance in 80-81, 101-102
skin resistance to water loss 101
succession on Mount St. Helens 395
tolerance for water loss 100
water balance in 100, see also Wood frog
“Frozen Dead Guys Days” festival 80
Fruit flies
as prey for guppies 269, see also Drosophila
Fruit-eating bats 553
Fucus gardneri 390
Fugitive species 328
Full compensation 272
Fulmarus glacialis (northern fulmar) 491
Functional groups 357
Fundamental niche 313-314
Fungi
cell walls 96
defensive symbionts with plants 294
endophytes 340
as enslaver parasites 289, 290
food absorption by heterotrophs 122
fungal gardens of leaf-cutter ants 332-333, 335-336, 339, 348-349 gut biota and 126
human symbionts 290
hyphae 334
number of imperiled species 522
parasites of leaf-cutter ant fungal gardens 348-349
waterlogged soils and 98, see also Mycorrhizae
Fungus-growing ants 332
Fur 93
Furcifer pardalis (panther chameleon) 212
Furcifer verrucosus (spiny chameleon) 212
Fynbos 58
Gadus morhua. see Cod
Galapagos finches (Geospiza) 138, 319-320
Galaxia (Galaxias vulgaris) 481-482
Galeopterus variegatus (Sundra flying lemur) 141
Galium hercynicum 313
Galium pumilum (Galium sylvestre) 313
Gambel oak 568
Gambian population 257, 260
Gametes
alternation of generations 165
anisogamy and sexual reproduction 162-164 gamete size and parental care 192-193 isogamy 162, 163
Gametophytes 165
Gamma diversity 405
Gap analysis 549
Gap Analysis Program (GAP) 549
Garcia, Maria 346, 347
Garry oak forest 402
Garter snakes 271
Gas bladders 74
Gas exchange, water balance in animals and 100
Gasterosteus 320
Gasterosteus doryssus 135
Gause, G. F. 317, 318
Gene flow
definition and description of 139-140
local adaptation and 144
speciation and 145
Gene-for-gene interactions 298-299
Generalists 269, 270
Generation time 258
Genes
animal behavior and 182-184
counterdefenses of parasites and 295-296, 297
defined 134
genetic analyses and genetic rescues in conservation biology 536-538
life history variation within species and 159
speciation and genetic divergence 145
Genetic drift
definition and description of 137-139,140, 236
evolutionary consequences of habitat fragmentation and 559
extinction risks for small populations and 235, 236, 237, 238 speciation and 146
Genetic locus 183
Genetic variation
adaptive evolution and 144
gene flow and 139-140
genetic drift and 139
mutation and 136-137
recombination and 137
sexual reproduction and 163-164
Genets 207
Genotype 134
Gentianella campestris (field gentian) 273, 274
Gentry, Alwyn 524-525
Geographic information systems (GIS) 548, 549
Geographic range
effects of global climate change on 213, 583-584
range contraction and biodiversity loss 526
spatial scale of distribution and 209, 210
species distribution models 212-213
variation in patchiness 210-212
variation in size 210
Geographical Distribution of Animals, The (Wallace) 408-409
Geologic history 217
Geometric population growth 246-247
Geometric population growth rate (λ)
definition and description of 247
density-independent factors and 251
effects of density on 250, 252, 253
growth by multiplication and 248-249
limits to 249, see also Population growth rates
Geospiza (Galapagos finches) 138, 319-320
Geospiza fortis (medium ground finch) 138, 320
Geospiza fulginosa 320
“Geritol solution,” 463-464
German cockroach (Blattella germanica) 182, 183
Ghost moth (Hepialus californicus) 270
Giant clams 450
Giant Pacific octopus (Enteroctopus dofleini) 172
Giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum) 403-404
Giant water bugs 198
Gibbula cineraria 273
Gibbula umbilicalis 273
Gigartina canaliculata 389-390, 438
GIS. see Geographic information systems
Giving-up time 186
Gizzards 125
Glacial till 385
Glacier Bay 385-387
Glaciers 68
Gleason, Henry 382
Global biogeochemical cycles
carbon cycle 573-576
influence of landscape structure on 553
nitrogen cycle 577-578
phosphorus cycle 578, 579
pools and fluxes 572-573
sulfur cycle 579, 580
Global biogeography
biogeographic regions 409-411
latitudinal gradients in species diversity 411-415, 416
Alfred Russel Wallace and 407-409
Global climate change
amphibian decline and 16, 17
anthropogenic carbon emissions and 573-575 approaches to studying 12
biodiversity loss and 534-535
causes of 581-583
climate change distinguished from climate variation 580 collapsing population cycles and 234
continuing ecological consequences of 586-587 defined 12
deforestation and 37
ecological responses to 583-585
enhancement of species invasions 431-432
estimated change over the twenty-first century 583
evidence for 580-581, 581-582
evolutionary responses to 143-144
extinctions and 153, 346, 347, 535, 584, 586, 587
greenhouse effect and 24
greenhouse gases and 25, 26
impact on competitive interactions between non-native species 327
impact on coral reef communities 379
impact on geographic ranges 213
impact on how and where organisms live 24
impact on Mexican lizards 91
impact on net ecosystem exchange 459
impact on species interactions 283, 284
impact on temperate grasslands 59
impact on the timing of seasonal activities 161
impact on tree mortality rates 250-251
IronEx I experiment to reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide 463-464 latitudinal gradients in species diversity and 415, 416
ocean acidification and 371-372, 575, 576
projected impact on the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem 568-569 spread of diseases and 305-306, 308
Global climate patterns 32-34
Global ecology
acid and nitrogen deposition 587-591
atmospheric ozone 592-594
dust as a vector of ecological impacts 596
dust storms and dust redistribution 571-572, 594-595, 596
global biogeochemical cycles 572-579, 580
global climate change 580-587, see also Global climate change introduction 572
Global energy balance 25-26
Global hectares 262
Global positioning systems (GPS) 548
Global scale, of species diversity 405
Global warming. see Global climate change
Glomus intraradices. see Rhizophagus irregularis
Glossosoma nigrior 305
Glucose
freeze tolerance in amphibians and 102
photosynthesis and 111
Glucose aversion 182, 183
Glycerol 102
Glycine soja (soybean) 252, 499
Glycolysis 121
Gobi Desert 56, 595
Gobies 339-340
Golden apple snail (Pomacea canaliculata) 270, 282-283
Golden banner (Thermopsis montana) 112
Golden tree snake (Chrysopelea ornata) 271
Goldenrain tree (Koelreuteria elegans) 141-142
Goldfish 490
Gomphotoria pugnax 147
Gondwana 409-410, 411
Gongylidia 332, 333
Goodall, Jane 106
Gooseneck barnacles 487-488
Gorilla beringei beringei (mountain gorilla) 542
Gorse (Ulex europaeus) 431
Goshawks 195, 196, 239
Gough, Laura 498
Goverde, Marcel 559
GPP. see Gross primary production
GPS. see Global positioning systems
Grain 552
Grandidier's baobab trees 55
Granite 43, 498
Grass carp 490
Grasses
C4 photosynthesis 116
commensalisms in sandy and cobblestone beaches 345
density-dependent decline in growth rates 253
effects of mycorrhizae on competition between 346
growth form and environment 49
habitat mutualisms 340
impact on the occurrence of fires in Hawaiian dry forests 217
Grasshoppers 199, 270
Grasslands
allocation of net primary production to roots 453
changes in net primary production during ecosystem development 454 community effects of Arctic fox predation and 281
effects of grassland loss on regional climate 37
effects of precipitation on net primary production 460
environmental changes affecting the Great Plains 47-48, 76, 77 impact of livestock grazing on 57, 76, 77, 515
meadows and the evolutionary consequences of habitat fragmentation 559 methods of estimating net primary production 454
montane grasslands 66
nitrogen deposition and lowering of species diversity 591, see also Tallgrass prairies; Temperate grasslands
Gravitational potential 95
Gravity, potential energy of water 95
Gray, Russell 128
Great Barrier Reef
detritivores 475
models of species coexistence 441, 443
ocean acidification and 575
service mutualisms and coral reef fishes 345, 346
Great Basin 59
Great Britain
acid precipitation and 587
heathlands and habitat fragmentation 211-212
impact of grazing on heath communities 282
impact of nitrogen deposition on species diversity 591
nitrogen deposition and lowering of species diversity 591
species-area relationship of plants 416-417
Great ocean conveyor belt 31
Great Plains
Dust Bowl 571-572, 594-595
effects on climate of human-created vegetation change 37
environmental changes and extinction of megafauna 47-48, 76, 77
Great tit (Parus major) 185, 186
Great Wicomico River 564
Greater glider 539
Greater prairie chicken (Tympanuchus cupido) 139, 140, 537
Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE)
boundaries of 548
impact of wolves on the foraging behavior of elk 187
projected effects of climate change on 568-569
wolf reintroduction 547-548, 565-567
Grebes 412
Green algae
Caulerpa taxifolia as an invasive species 354-355, 372, 373
context dependence of species interactions in stream communities 370
isogamy 162, 163
lakes 69
number of imperiled species 522
primary succession in rocky intertidal communities 389-390
Green crab (Carcinus maenas) 272, 273, 431-432
Green mistletoe (Ileostylus micranthus) 108
Green sulfur bacteria 109
Greenhouse effect
defined 24, 581
global warming and 581-583
greenhouse gases and 581-582
Greenhouse gases
anthropogenic carbon release and 573-575
defined 581-582
global climate change and 25, 26
greenhouse effect and 581-583
members of 24, 25
tropical rainforests and 43
Greenland 410
Grime, Philip 174-175, 176
Grizzly bear (Ursus arctos horribilis)
environmental stochasticity and population size 238, 239
foraging on salmon 22
global climate change and 568
isotopic analysis of diet 466
Gross primary production (GPP)
definition and overview 452, 453
methods of estimating 454
net primary production and 452
using to estimate net primary production 455
Ground frogs 100
Ground pangolin (Manis temmenickii) 272
Group living
benefits of 195-197
costs of 197
effects of group size on the costs and benefits of 197, 198
Growth, trade-offs with reproduction 168
Growth forms, of plants 49-50
Grutter, Alexandra 346
Guano 281
Guard cells 87, 88, 98
Guilds 357
Gulf of Mexico, dead zones 591
Gulf Stream 31
Guppies
diets 269
ecological factors and mating behavior 194
effects of selective harvest on 132-133
Gustafsson, Lars 169
Gut microbiota, mutualisms 335, 336
Gymnogyps Californianus (California condor) 539, 540
Gymnosperms, number of imperiled species 522
Gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) 234, 308
H
Haber-Bosch process 499, 578
Habitat corridors 562-563
Habitat degradation
biodiversity loss and 529-530
defined 529
invasive species and 530-532
Habitat fragmentation
biodiversity loss and 529-530
Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project and 400-401, 422-423 defined 529
edge effects 422-423, 557-559 effects in tropical rainforests 400-401, 422-423 evolutionary consequences of 152, 153, 559 extinction of metapopulations and 219-220 geographic range of populations and 211-212 habitat impoverishment and 557, 558
Lago Guri reservoir example 555
process of 556, 557
reversibility of 556-557
Habitat loss
biodiversity loss and 529-530
countering with nature reserves 560
defined 529
habitat vulnerability to invasive species and 530
longleaf pine savanna and the red-cockaded woodpecker 520-521 process of 556, 557
Habitat mutualisms 339-340
Habitat patches
biotic exchange between 550-551
geographic range of populations and 211-212 influence on population dynamics 553 metapopulations and 218-221
Habitat rules 212
Habitats
benefits of protecting surrogate species 541-542 classification of plant life histories and 174-175 effects of habitat suitability on abundance and distribution 214-216, 217 habitat edges and edge effects 557-559
Hacker, Sally 365
Haddad, Nick 489, 562-563
Hadley, George 27
Hadley cells 27, 28, 33, 39, 55
Haematopus ostralegus (Eurasian oyster-catcher) 185-186
Haines, Bruce 349
Hairworms 289, 308
Halobacterium 96
Halobates robustus (ocean skater) 196
Hamiltonella defensa 294-295
Handling time 269
Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS) 231-232
Hantaviruses 427, 428, 446
Harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) 534
Hardwood hammock forests 418
Hardy-Weinberg equation 134
Hare, Steven 22, 23, 44
Harmful alleles, genetic drift and 138
Hartnett, David 346
Haustoria 291
Hawaiian hoary bat (Lasiurus cinereus) 218
Hawaiian Islands
dispersal limitation and the Hawaiian hoary bat 218
effects of grasses on the occurrence of fires in dry forests 217
effects of species invasions on species-area curves of tropical forest 418 nutrient cycling and ecosystem development 509
Hawkmoths 123
Head louse 290
Hearne, Samuel 80
Heat
evaporation and latent heat transfer 86
global energy balance and 25
Heat capacity 28, 30
Heat pumps, ocean currents as 31
Heath hen (Tympanuchus cupido cupido) 238
Heath/Heathlands 211-212, 282, 591
Heavy metal tolerance 144
Heijden, Marcel van der 346, 348
Helianthus annuus 150
Helianthus anomalus 150
Helianthus petiolaris 150
Helianthus tuberosus 360
Helisoma tenuis 3, 4
Helmont, Jan Baptist van 110
Hemigymnus melapterus 346
Hemiparasites 108, 291
Henry, Mickael 553
Hepialus californicus (ghost moth) 270
Heracleum mantegazzianum 360
Herbivores/Herbivory
assimilation efficiency 478
bioaccumulation and biomagnification of pollutants 490 biological control and 215, 216
biotic resistance to non-native species and 431 bottom-up or top-down control of energy flow 480 defined 108, 267, 466
dietary preferences 269, 270
digestion of food 125-126
effects of leaf-cutter ants on tropical forests 349
energy flow between trophic levels and 476-477 estuarine food webs and climate change 371, 372 evolution and plant-herbivore interactions 275-276 food chemistry and 122
in food webs and interaction webs 357
impact on communities 280, 281-283
impact on interspecific competition 325
kelp forest-urchin barren dynamics 204-205, 213, 215, 221-222, 223, 364
365
overcoming plant defenses 274-275
plant diversity and prairie food web stability 489 plant responses to reduce 272-274
reciprocal interactions with plants 272-275 species interactions and 268
trophic cascade in a lowland tropical forest 482-483 trophic level occupied by 474
Hermaphroditism, sequential 176
Herring 479
Hesperia comma (skipper butterfly) 220-221
Hesperoleucas symmetricus (roach) 370
Heteractis magnifica 158
Heterodon platirhinos (hognose snake) 189
HeterotrophsZHeterotrophy
classification of 465-466
definition and description of 11, 108, 121 digestion and assimilation of food 124-126 energy and biomass pyramids 476 food availability and nutrition 121-122 net secondary production and biomass 466-467 secondary production 465-467 strategies for obtaining food 122-124 trophic levels and 474
Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) 473
Hibernation 93-94 “Hide-and-seek” dynamics 279
Highlands/High elevations
acclimatization by individuals 83-84 acid precipitation and 588
continental temperatures and 32-33 human adaptation to 84
stress on organisms 82-83
High-pressure cells
desert biomes and 55
El-Nino events and 40
global precipitation patterns and 33, 34 prevailing winds and 28, 29, 30
Hilderbrand, G. V. 466
Himalayas 32
Hippodamia convergens 440
Hognose snake (Heterodon platirhinos) 189
Holoparasites 108
Honeybees 90
Honeydew 340-341
Horizons 498
Horizontal interactions 358
Horizontal stems 206
Horned land frog (Sphenophryne cornuta) 170
Horned lizards (Phrynosoma) 186
Hornets 123
Horns
sexual selection in male bighorn sheep 191
trophy hunting of bighorn sheep and 132, 133-134, 151
Horsetails 148
Hosts
counterdefenses of parasites 295-296, 297
defensive mechanisms against parasites 293-295, 296 defined 267, 290
ectoparasites 291-292
endoparasites 292-293
enslaver parasites and 289-290, 293, 307-308, 309
host-parasite population dynamics 300-304 parasite-host coevolution 297-300
trade-offs in host-parasite systems 300
Hot spring communities 340
House mouse (Mus musculus) 528
Howardula 344
Howardula aoronymphium 296
HPS. see Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome
Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest 506-507
Hudson, Peter 301-302
Hudson Bay 281-282
Hudson's Bay Company 266
Huffaker, C. B. 278-279
Hughes, Jennifer 362, 363
Human activities
acid precipitation 587-589
alternative states of communities and 394
anthropogenic carbon release 573-575, 576 biodiversity loss and see Biodiversity loss ecosystem management and 566
extinction of North American megafauna 48, 76 global ecology and 572
greenhouse effect and global warming 582-583 habitat loss and fragmentation 555-559 impact on boreal forests 64
impact on coral reefs 72
impact on deserts 57
impact on evolution 132-134, 151-153
impact on lotic ecosystems 68
impact on ozone 592-594
impact on temperate deciduous forests 61
impact on temperate evergreen forests 63
impact on temperate grasslands 57
impact on temperate shrublands and woodlands 59 impact on the distribution of terrestrial biomes 50-52
impact on the global nitrogen cycle 577-578
impact on the global phosphorus cycle 578, 579
impact on the global sulfur cycle 579, 580
impact on the oceans 75
impact on tropical rain forests 53, 54
impact on tundra 64-65
landscape legacies 554-555
nitrogen deposition 589-591
unanticipated effects of 6, 7, see also Deforestation; Overexploitation;
Pollutants; Pollution
Human health
climate change and the spread of diseases 305-306, 307
effects of tropospheric ozone on 594
forest fragmentation and Lyme disease 557, 558
insecticide resistance and West Nile virus 140, 144
malaria-causing Plasmodium falciparum 295-296, 297
models of host-pathogen population dynamics to control diseases 302-304 pathogens and symbionts 290, 292, 293, 294, see also Diseases; Emergent diseases
Human population growth
analyzing changes over time 248
growth by multiplication 249
logistic growth and the carrying capacity of the U.S population 254-255 overview of past and future trends in 244-245, 260-262 population age structure and 255, 256
Human populations
age structure 255, 256
carrying capacity and ecological footprint 260-262
life table data 259-260
survivorship curves 256, 257
Humans
adaptation to high elevations 84
benefits of tropical rainforest diversity 423-424
digestive system 125
elemental composition 496
impacts of human activities see Human activities
life histories 159
reproductive potential of females and males 194
tolerance for water loss 100
Humboldt Current 32
Humidity 95
Hummingbirds 124
Humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) 218
Hunt, Gavin 106-107, 128
Hunting
effects on elephant population size 251
illegal hunting 133, see also Overexploitation; Trophy hunting
Hurricane Hugo 521, 543
Hurricane Katrina 581
Hurricane Sandy 581
Hurricanes, global climate change and 581
Huston, Michael 438-439
Hutchinson, G. E. 415, 436-437, 451
Huth, Chad 341-343
Hyacinthoides non-scripta (English bluebell) 218
Hybridization
ecological shift in sunflowers and 150
speciation and 145
Hydra 206
Hydrochloric acid 587
Hydrogen
in the elemental composition of organisms 496 functions in plants 497
stable isotopes 120
Hydrogen bacteria 109
Hydrogen sulfide 109, 110, 579
Hydroids 206, 392-393
Hydrothermal vent communities
chemoautotrophs and the composition of 467-468
coevolution in 469
discovery of 450
origin of life and 469
questions posed by 450-451
succession in 468-469
Hydroxide ions 43
Hymenoepimecis argyraphaga 307-308
Hyparremia rufa (jaragua grass) 563
Hypericum perforatum (Klamath weed) 280
Hyperosmotic animals 94, 99
Hyphae 334, 335
Hypolimnion 39, 40
Hypoosmotic animals 94, 99
Hyporheic zone 68
Hypotheses, scientific method and 15
Hypoxia (hypoxic conditions)
benthic zone in lakes 511
defined 43
eutrophication and 591
at high elevations 82-83
plant roots in waterlogged soils 98
Hypoxic soils 337
Hypselodoris bullockii 272
Hystersis 394, 393
Ibex (Capra ibex) 537
Ice-nucleating proteins 102
Idiosyncratic hypothesis 445
Ileostylus micranthus (green mistletoe) 108
Ilex verticillata (winterberry) 563
Illegal hunting 133
Illegal ivory trade 537-538
Immigration
defined 209
equilibrium theory of island biogeography and 419-422, see also Dispersal
Immune systems 294
Impalas 58
Impatiens glandulifera 360
Imperata cylindrica (cogongrass) 544
Imperatoria ostruthium 360
Imperiled species, number of 522
Inadvertent evolution 132-134, 151-152
Inbreeding 236, 559
Inbreeding depression 236, 237, 238
India, continental drift and 410, 411
Indian Ocean
coral reefs and agents of change 378, 379
great ocean conveyor belt 31
Indigo bunting (Passerina cyanea) 563
Indirect species interactions
competitive networks 366
definition and overview of 363-364
importance of 364
trophic cascades and trophic facilitations 364-365
Individuals
acclimatization 82-84
ecological studies and 8
issues in defining 206-207
natural selection and evolution 137,138 patterns of life history 158-161
phenotype and mutations 136-137 recombination and 137
Induced defenses 273
Industrial Revolution 573-574, 579, 587
Infanticide 180-181, 182, 198
Infection thread 397
Infectious diseases
insecticide resistance and West Nile virus 140, 144
managing by biodiversity 446
species diversity and 427-428, 445-446
Infrared radiation
energy balance of animals 89
global climate change and 581
global energy balance and 25
plant energy balance and 87, 89
Inhibition model of succession
description of 384, 383
primary succession in rocky intertidal communities 389-390 secondary succession in a salt marsh 387-389
Inland seas, salinity 42
Inorganic compounds
chemosynthesis and 109-110
defined 108n1
Insecticide resistance 140, 144
Insectivores 466
Insects
adaptive evolution in soapberry bugs 141-142 body temperature and basking behavior 91 carnivorous plants and 312-313, 328-329 complex life cycles and metamorphosis 171 eco-evolutionary feedbacks and 151 encapsulation of parasites 295 herbivory and 270 morphological diversity of mouthparts 123 number of imperiled species 522 sexual cannibalism 192
speciation driven by ecological inter-actions 149
tolerance for water loss 100, see also Ants; Aphids; Beetles; Butterflies; Mosquitoes; Moths
Insulation 93
Interaction strengths
definition and description of 366, 368
food webs and 487-489
measurement of 367
Interaction webs
defined 358
estuarine food webs and climate change 371
trophic cascades 364-365
trophic facilitations 365
Interactor species 366, 367, 368-369
Interagency Ecosystem Management Task Force 564
Interference competition 314
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 582-583
Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
description of 437-438
elaborations on 438-440
International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) 521, 541
Interspecific competition 313, see also Competition
Intertidal boulder fields 438
Intertidal zones/communities
commensalisms 345
competitive exclusion and fugitive species 328
description and characteristics of 71
effects of physical environment and competition on species distribution 325
326
species diversity and the intermediate disturbance hypothesis 437, 438, 439440, see also Rocky intertidal zone
Intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) 39
Intestines 125
Intraspecific competition 313
Intrinsic rate of increase 247
Inuit people 472-473, 490
Invasive species
ballast water organisms 429-430
biodiversity loss and 530-532
biotic resistance and 431
Caulerpa taxifolia 354-355, 372, 373
defined 530
destruction of biocrust and 515
edge effects and 559
effects of global climate change on 431-432
impact on different biomes 535
impact on species diversity 360
impact on species-area curves 418
invasive Mnemiopsis comb jellies in the Black Sea ecosystem 226-227, 230231, 240
issues in the control or eradication of 531-532
prescribed burning and 544, see also Non-native species
Invertebrates
hydrothermal vent communities 450-451, 467-469
number of imperiled species 522
parental investment 169-170
Shag River trophic cascade and 481-482
tolerance for water loss 100
water balance in aquatic and terrestrial animals 99-100, see also Marine invertebrates
IPCC. see Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Iron
atmospheric deposition of 500
effects of iron fertilization on marine net primary production 463-464
in the elemental composition of organisms 496
functions in plants 497
in lake sediments 511
occlusion 509
vertebrate defenses against parasites and 294
Iron bacteria 109
Iron sulfate 463-464
Iron sulfide 450
IronEx I experiment 463-464
Island-like habitats 417, 418
Islands
equilibrium theory of island biogeography 419-421
influence of island size on the number of trophic levels 484
principle threats to island biomes 535
species-area relationship and species-area curves 417, 418, 419
taxonomic homogenization and 527-528
Isle Royale 553
Isoclines
defined 277
Lotka-Volterra competition model and 321-322, 323
modeling predator-prey population cycles 277, 278
Isoetes (quillworts) 118
Isogamy 162, 163
Isolation by distance 220-221
Isoosmotic animals 94, 99
Isoprene 593
Isotopes 120, see also Stable isotope analyses
Isozymes 86
Isthmus of Panama 410
Itch mites 290
ITCZ. see Intertropical convergence zone
Iteoparity 172, 173
IUCN. see International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources
Iva frutescens 365
Ivory poaching 133
Ivory trade, illegal 537-538
Ixodes 290
Jacana jacana (wattled jacana) 198
Jadera haematoloma (soapberry bug) 141-142
Janzen, Dan 343-345, 524, 563
Japanese honeybee (Apis cerana) 90
Jaragua grass (Hyparremia rufa) 563
Jizera Mountains 588
Johnson, Pieter 3, 12, 14
Jones, Teresa 220, 221
J-shaped growth curves 229, 246, 247
Juncus 383
Juncus gerardii (black rush) 365, 387-389, 526
Junegrass (Koeleria macrantha) 346
Juniper and pinon pine woodland 59
“Junk food hypothesis,” 479-480
Junonia coenia (common buckeye butterfly) 563
Jura Mountains 559
Kakapo (Strigops habroptilus) 239
Kangaroo rats (Dipodomys) 101
Katsuwonus pelamis (skipjack tuna) 91
Kauri (Agathis australis) 403-404
Keeling, Charles 26
Kelp beds (kelp forests)
description and characteristics of 73
ecological importance of 222
kelp and commensalisms 335
kelp forest-urchin barren dynamics 204-205, 213, 215, 221-222, 223, 364
365
net primary production of open oceans and 463
trophic cascades 364-365
Kenward, Ben 128
Keystone species
context dependence of species interactions and 369-370
definition and description of 368-369
versus foundation species 368
trophic interactions in food webs and 488
Khatyrka 34, 35
Kiesecker, Joseph 5, 12, 13
Killer whale (Orcinus orca)
kelp forest-urchin barren dynamics and 222, 223
persistent organic pollutants and 534
predation on Steller sea lions 480
sea otter-sea urchin-killer whale trophic cascade 481
King, Leah 337
Kiwis 169, 170
Klamath weed (Hypericum perforatum) 280
Klironomos, John 346, 348
Kobresia myosuroides 460, 461, 462
Koeleria macrantha (junegrass) 346
Koelreuteria elegans (goldenrain tree) 141-142
Kohler, Wolfgang 106
Konza Prairie LTER 77
Kozaki, Akiko 115
Kraaijeveld, Alex 300
Krakatau Island 420-421
Krebs, Charles 284-285
Kremen, Claire 560-561, 562, 566
Krill 186,187
Krummel, E. M. 491
Krutzen, Michael 128-129
K-selection 173-174, 175, 176
Kudzu (Pueraria montana) 314, 530-531
L
Laboratory experiments
on amphibian decline 3-4, 12
spatial scale 13
Labroides dimidiatus 345, 346
Lacerta viridis (European green lizard) 192-193
Lack, David 166
Lack clutch size 166
Lago Guri reservoir 555
Lagoons 373
Lagopus lagopus (red grouse) 301-302
Lake Baikal 69
Lake Erie 231
Lake Michigan sand dune communities 381-382
Lake Tahoe 512
Lake Washington 512, 513
Lakes/Lake communities
acid neutralizing capacity and acid precipitation 588, 589 classification by nutrient status 511
control of net primary production by nutrients 461-462 energy and biomass pyramids 476
energy flow in 451
eutrophication 512, 513
factors affecting biological communities in 68-69 nutrients and nutrient cycling 511-512
seasonal stratification 39-40
spatial zonation 69
variation in oxygen concentrations 43
Lamellocytes 295
Laminaria 204, 205
Land snails 527-528
Land use change
anthropogenic carbon release and 573, 574
defined 50
dust storms and 595
effects on the distribution of terrestrial biomes 50-52
Landscape composition 551
Landscape ecology
definition and overview of 550
habitat loss and fragmentation 555-559
heterogeneity of landscapes 550-553
interaction of landscape heterogeneity with disturbance 553-555
interaction of landscape patterns with ecological processes 552 introduction 548
methods of spatial analysis in 548, 549
nature reserve design 560-564
wolf reintroduction in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem 547-548, 565-567
Landscape legacies 554-555
Landscape structure
definition and description of 551-552
interactions with ecological dynamics 553
Landscapes
characteristics of 550-551
defined 9, 550
describing the heterogeneity of 551-552
ecological studies and 8
importance of scale 552-553
interaction of landscape heterogeneity with disturbance 553-555
interaction of landscape patterns with ecological processes 552
nature reserve design 560-564
species diversity and 405
La-Nina 40
Lapse rate 32
Largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) 188
Lark bunting (Calamospiza melanocorys) 549
Larrea tridentata (creosote bush) 59, 214-215
Larus fuscus (lesser black-backed gull) 166
Larvae
dispersal 170,171
functional specialization 171
Lasiurus cinereus (Hawaiian hoary bat) 218
Latent heat exchange (latent heat flux)
cloud formation and 27
evaporation and 86
evapotranspiration and 36, 37
heat loss and 25
Lates niloticus (Nile perch) 530
Latitudinal gradients, in net primary production 464-465
Latitudinal gradients in species diversity
biogeographic regions and 409
climate change and 415, 416
multiple interrelated causes of 412-415
overview and description of 411-412, 413
Alfred Russel Wallace's identification of 408
Latrodectus hasselti (redback spider) 192
Lauenroth, William 460
Laurance, William 558
Laurasia 409, 410, 411
LdMNPV. see Lymantria dispar Uucleopolyhedrovirus
Leaching 498
Leadbeater's possum 539
Leaf area index 452, 453, 465
Leaf miners 270
Leaf-cutter ants 332-333, 335-336, 339, 348-349
Leaf-feeding beetles 270
Learned behavior, tool use and 128-129
Leaves
acclimatization of plant photosynthesis to light levels and 111, 112 anatomy in C4 plants 116, 11Z
boundary layer and convective heat transfer 88-89
compensation and 273, 2Z4
gross primary production 452, 453
herbivores and 270
influence of nutrients on photosynthesis in 113
internal recycling of nutrients by plants 504
photosynthesis and 110
plant energy balance and 87-89
plant responses to reduce herbivory and 272, 273
plant water balance and 97-98
pubescence 87-88, 89, 90
Leghemoglobin 396
Legumes 499
Leishmania tropica 291
Leishmaniasis 306, 307
Lembadion bullinum 271
Lemmings 233, 234
Lemmus lemmus (Norwegian lemming) 232
Lentic ecosystems 68-69
Leopard frog (Lithobates pipiens) 1, 4-5
Leopard sea cucumber (Bohadschia argus) 475
Lepomis macrochirus (bluegill sunfish) 188, 442
Leptopilina 295
Leptopilina heterotoma 198
Lepus americanus. see Snowshoe hare
Lesser black-backed gull (Larus fuscus) 166
Lesser snow goose (Chen caerulescens caerulescens) 281-282
Lethocerus deyrollei 198
Letourneau, Deborah 482-483
Lettuce sea slug (Elysia crispata) 109
Levins, Richard 219, 220
Lewontin, Richard 392
Lianas 53
Libinia dubia (decorator crab) 188
Lice 292
Lichens
biological soil crust and 494
effects of air pollution on 153
nitrogen-fixing symbioses and 499
number of imperiled species 522
Lieth, Helmut 52
Life cycles
complex cycles 164-165
evolution of 169-173, see also Life history
Life expectancy, human life table data 260
Life history
classification schemes 173-176
climate change and the timing of seasonal activities 161
clownfish 157-158, 176, 177
complex life cycles 164-165
defined 158
differences among individuals within species 158-161 life cycle evolution 169-173
mode of reproduction 162-164
trade-offs 165-169
Life history strategy 159
Life tables
age structure 255-256
cohort life tables 256-258
data for human populations 259-260
defined 255
static life tables 258, 259-260
survivorship curves 256, 257
using to estimate population growth in a threatened species 258-259
Light. see Solar radiation; Sunlight
Light compensation point 111, 112, 113
Light response curves 111, 112
Light saturation point 111, 112
Light utilization coefficient 458-459
Light-driven reactions of photosynthesis 110-111
Lignin 502, 503
Likens, Gene 506-507
Limacodidae 189
Lime aphid (Eucallipterus tiliae) 270
Limestone 43, 498
Limnocorrals 461, 462
Limonium nashii 440
Limpets 390
Lindeman, Raymond 451
Line transects 208
Lions
extinction risk of small populations 236, 238
infanticide 180-181, 182, 198
Lipaphis erysimi 275, 276
Lithobates pipiens (leopard frog) 1, 4-5
Lithobates sylvaticus. see Wood frog
Lithosphere 48
Litter
decomposition and mineralization 500-502, 503
defined 500
ecological effects of behavioral responses to predators and 199 effects of non-native cheatgrass on 515
mean residence time of nutrients and 505, 506
Littoral zone 69
Littorina Iittorea 273
Liver flukes 290
Livestock grazing
impact on biological soil crust 494-495, 514, 515
impact on deserts 57
impact on grasslands and the Great Plains 76, 77
impact on heath communities 282
impact on temperate grasslands 57
Lizards
antipredator behaviors 189
behavioral temperature regulation 91
benefits to choosy females 192-193
community effects of predation by 280-281
egg size-egg number trade-offs 166-167
impact of global climate change on 91, 535, 584, see also Anole lizards
Lobe-finned fishes 148
Loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) 574-575
Lobsters 468
Local adaptation, gene flow and 144
Local species diversity 405, 406, 407
Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) 231
Lodgepole pine forest 551, 552
Loess 498, 595, 596
Loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) 245, 259
Logging
habitat fragmentation in tropical rainforests and 400-401, 422
northern spotted owl conflict and 564, see also Deforestation
Logistic population growth 230, 253-255
Lomatia tasmanica 206
Longitudinal variation in species diversity 412
Longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) 520, 521
Longleaf pine savanna 520-522, 541, 543-544
Long-spined sea urchin (Centrostephanus rodgersii) 213
Long-tailed widowbird (Euplectes progne) 191
Long-Term Ecological Research (LTER) Network 76-77
Long-toed salamander (Ambystoma macrodactylum) 3
Longwave radiation 25
Lonicera maackii (Amur honeysuckle) 418
Lotic ecosystems 67-68
Lotka, A. J. 321
Lotka-Volterra competition model 321-324
Lotka-Volterra predator-prey model 276-278
Lottery models of species coexistence 441-443
Lovejoy, Thomas 400-401
Lower critical temperature 92-93
Lower montane zone 66
Lowland tropical forests
effects of nutrients on net primary production in rainforests 461 soil characteristics and mineral nutrients 499
trophic cascade example 482-483
Low-pressure cells
El-Nino events and 40
global precipitation patterns and 34
prevailing wind patterns and 28, 29, 30
Loxia curvirostra (red crossbill) 124,125
Loxodonta africana (African elephant) 133, 251, 537-538
LTER Network. see Long-Term Ecological Research Network
Lucerne seed web moth (Etiella behrii) 431
Lucilia cuprina (sheep blowfly) 233-234
Lungworms 290
Lupinus lepidus (dwarf lupine) 395, 396
Lupinus polyphyllus 360
Lutzomyia 307
Lymantria dispar (gypsy or spongy moth) 234, 308
Lymantria dispar nucleopolyhedrovirus (LdMNPV) 308
Lyme disease 290, 557, 558
Lynx canadensis (Canada lynx) 266, 267, 269, 285, 286
M
Macademia nut plantations 550-551
MacArthur, John 434, 435
MacArthur, Robert
equilibrium theory of island biogeography 401, 419-421
on resource partitioning and species coexistence 433-434, 435 r-selection/K-selection concept 173
on species richness and community stability 443
Macroalgae
disturbance and species coexistence in rocky intertidal communities 437, 438 primary succession in rocky intertidal communities 390, see also Kelp beds; Seaweeds
Macrophytes 68
Macropores 498
Macropus rufus (red kangaroo) 211
Madagascar
Masoala National Park 560-561, 562, 566
modeling species distribution of chameleons 212-213
Madison Canyon 554
Magnesium/Magnesium ions
acid precipitation and 588
in the elemental composition of organisms 496
functions in plant nutrition 497
mean residence time 506
nitrogen saturation and 590
reduced levels in grazed biocrust 514
Majerus, Michael 153
Malaria 290, 295-296, 297
Malay Archipelago 407-408
Malay Archipelago, The (Wallace) 408
Males
infanticide and 180-181, 182, 198
mating behavior 190-195, see also Mating behavior
mating systems and 194-195
reproductive potential of 194
Mallee 58
Mammals
background extinction rate 525 contemporary threats to 529 endothermy and insulation 93 impact of pollutants on marine mammals 534 number of imperiled species 522 number of parasite species 291 origin of 147
overexploitation in tropical forests 532
range contraction and biodiversity loss 526
water balance and resistance to water loss 101
Mandarte Island song sparrows 252
Manganese 496, 497, 588-589
Mangrove forests 71
Mangrove islands 421
Manis temmenickii (ground pangolin) 272
Mannion, Philip 415
Mantids 192
Mantua, Nathan 22, 23
Maquis 58
Marginal value theorem 186-187
Marine biological zones
impact of human activities on 75
nearshore zones 70-72
open ocean and deep benthic zones 73-75
overview 69-70
principle threats to 535
shallow ocean zones 72-73
Marine cyanobacteria 111-112
Marine ecosystems
ballast water organisms and species invasions 429-430
effects of global climate change on community composition 584-585
effects of nutrients on net primary production 462-464
effects of pollutants on 534
global carbon cycle 573, 574, 575, 576
global nitrogen cycle 577, 578
global patterns of net primary production 464, 465
global phosphorus cycle 578, 579
marine bacteria and bioremediation 122, 123
nutrients and nutrient cycling 512-513
principle threats to 535
water balance in animals 99
water balance in plants 96, see also Intertidal zones/communities; Oceans
Marine fouling communities 392-394
Marine invertebrates
bivalves and latitudinal gradients in species diversity 414-415
dispersal of larvae 170,171
functional specialization of larvae 171
local and regional species richness 406, 407
snail defenses against predation 272, 273, see also Barnacles; Clams; Corals;
Mollusks; Sea stars; Sea urchins
Maritime climates 34, 35
Mark-recapture studies 207, 208-209
Marmota flaviventris (yellow-bellied marmot) 94
Marmots 94
Marsupials 539
Martin, John 463
Martin, Paul 76
Masoala National Park 560-561, 562, 566
Mass, Clifford 380
Mass extinctions
humans and the sixth mass extinction 152-153
long-term patterns of evolution and 147,149
Mating behavior
choosy female concept 181
effects of gamete size, parental care, and ecological factors on 193-195 group living and 197
overview 190
sexual selection and 190-193
Mating systems 194-195
Matorral 58
Matric potential 95
Matrix habitat
biotic exchange between habitats and 550-551
defined 417
habitat fragmentation in tropical forests and 423
influence on population dynamics 553
Mauna Loa Observatory 26
May, Robert 488
McKane, Robert 503, 504
Meadows. see Grasslands; Seagrass meadows; Subalpine meadows
Mean (statistics) 531
Mean residence time 505-506
Measles 303
Mechanical weathering 497, 498
Medicago truncatula 341, 342
Mediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis capitata) 527
Mediterranean Sea, invasive Caulerpa taxifolia 354-355, 372, 373
Mediterranean-type climates 24, 58
Mediterranean-type shrublands 58-59, 60
Medium ground finch (Geospiza fortis) 138
Megafauna extinction 47-48, 76
Megaptera novaeangliae (humpback whale) 218
Meinesz, Alexandre 354, 355, 372, 373
Melanin 592
Melanocetus (anglerfish) 74
Melinis minutiflora (molasses grass) 217
Melospiza melodia (song sparrow) 188, 199, 252
Membranes, effects of temperature on 86
Menge-Sutherland model 440-441
Mercenaria mercenaria 469
Mercury 490, 491
Merozoites 295, 297
Mesophyll, in C4 plants 116, 117
Mesotrophic waters 511
Metabolic heat generation 89-90
Metabolic rate, endotherms 92-94
Metamorphosis 164,165, 171, 172
Metapopulations
defined 209, 218, 219
dynamics of extinction and colonization 219-221
sources and sinks 218-219
Methane
effects of global climate change on net ecosystem exchange and 585
global carbon cycle 573, 574
greenhouse effect and 24, 25, 581, 582-583
a greenhouse gas 581, 582
Methanogenic archaea 574
Metrosideros polymorpha (Ohi'a) 509
Mexican lizards 91
Microalgae 371-372
Microclimate, influence of edge effects on 559
Microorganisms
bioremediation and 122, 123
decomposition of litter 500, 501-502
dessication tolerance 102
food absorption by heterotrophs 122
transformation of inorganic nutrients 502-503, 504
water balance 95-96, see also Archaea; Bacteria; Prokaryotes
Microphallus 299, 300
Micropterus salmoides (largemouth bass) 188
Microrhopala vittata 440
Middle East, dust storms 571, 572, 595
Mid-ocean ridges 409, 410
Migration
defined 218
dispersal of whales and 218
effects of global climate change on migratory species 584
Milkweeds 340
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 424, 443
Mimicry
used by predators 271
used by prey 271-272
Mimulus guttatus 360
Mine soils 144
Mineralization
defined 500
in lakes 511
of nitrogen 502
in ocean sediments 513
plant uptake of organic nitrogen and 503
in soils 501
Minerals, sources of nutrients 497-499
Mining, global phosphorus cycle and 578, 579
Minirhizotrons 454, 455
Mink 568
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency 1
Mirror Lake 475, 512
Miss Waldron's red colobus monkey (Piliocolobus waldronae) 532
Mistletoe 108, 291
Mites 69, 278-279, 292, 300
Mittelbach, Gary 413
Mnemiopsis 394
Mnemiopsis leidyi 226-227, 230-231, 240, 430
Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) 455
Mojave Desert 56
Molasses grass (Melinis minutiflora) 217
Mole salamander (Ambystoma talpoideum) 172
Molina, Mario 593
Molinia 383
Mollusks
functional specialization of larvae 171
number of imperiled species 522
tolerance for water loss 100
Moloch horridus (thorny devil) 141
Molybdenum 497, 513
Mompha brevivittella 151
Monarch butterfly 210
Monkey puzzle trees (Araucaria) 62
Monkshood (Aconitum napellus) 239
Monogamy 195
Montane zone 66
Montreal Protocol 593
Moon wrasse (Thalassoma lunare) 176
Moose (Alces alces) 336-337, 553
Morella faya (fire tree) 418
Morphs 160-161
Mortality rates. see Death rates
Mosaic 550
Mosquitoes
climate change and the spread of diseases 306 malaria-causing Plasmodium falciparum and 295, 297 mouthparts 123
predicting the outcome of competition between 324
West Nile virus and 6, 7, 140, 144
Mosses 494, 522
Moths
crypsis in 272
eco-evolutionary feedbacks and 151
enslaver parasites and 308
number of parasite species 291
pollution and evolution in 152, 153
yucca plant-yucca moth mutualism 341-343
Mount Pinatubo 380
Mount St. Helens
disturbance from eruption 376-377, 380
succession on 397, 381, 394-396
Mountain chains 36
Mountain communities
biome distribution and characteristics 51
ecological effects of dust movement on 596-597
elevational bands 66-67
global climate change and elevational shifts in vegetation zones 586 human impact on 51
principle threats to 535
species interactions and succession in mountain forests 391, see also Mount St. Helens
Mountain gorilla (Gorilla beringei beringei) 542
Mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) 230, 231, 458, 568, 569, 585
Mountains
continental temperatures and 32-33
effect on regional temperature and precipitation 34-36
rain shadow effect 35
Mouthparts, insects 123
Mouths 125
Muir, John 385
Multiple-Use Sustained-Yield Act (1960) 565
Mus musculus (house mouse) 528
Mushrooms 522
Musk oxen 196, 272
Muskrats 568
Mussels
disturbance and species coexistence in rocky intertidal communities 437 effects of climate change on predator-prey interactions in rocky intertidal zones 535
effects of disturbance on competition with sea palms 328
effects of invasive mussels on biodiversity 530
hydrothermal vent communities 451, 467, 468
interaction strength of sea star predation on 367
predator-prey cycles and 279, 280
rocky intertidal food webs and 487-488
Mustela nigripes (black-footed ferret) 534
Mustelids 146,147
Mutagens 136-137
Mutation 136-137
Mutualisms
characteristics of 339-343
defined 268, 333
hydrothermal vent invertebrates and chemoautotrophs 467-468
impact on abundance 343-345
impact on community diversity 345-346
leaf-cutter ant-fungi mutualism 332-333, 335-336, 339, 348-349 mechanisms to prevent overexploitation 341-343
as obligate interactions 335-336
as positive interactions 334
prevalence of 334-335, 336
primary succession and 396-397
trophic mutualisms 339
Mycalesis 174
Mycena interrupta 475
Mycobacterium 290
Mycobacterium tuberculosis 292, 293
Mycorrhizae
defined 334
effects on species interactions and ecosystem properties 346, 348
plant allocation of rewards in 341, 342
plant water balance and 96-97
types of 334-335
Myosotis laxa (small-flowered forget-me-not) 337
Myrtle Forest 475
Mytilus californianus (California mussel) 280, 328, 437, 487-488
Mytilus trossulus 367
Myxoma virus 297-298
N
NADPH. see Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate
Namib Desert 56
Nassau grouper (Epinephelus striatus) 172
Natural catastrophes 238
Natural Heritage Program 541
Natural resources
ecosystem management and 565, see also Resources
Natural selection
adaptation and 141-142
animal behavior and 182
constraints on 144
defined 10-11, 134
evolution and 134, 136
impact on allele frequencies 137
life history variations and 159
speciation and 145-146
types of 137, 138
The Nature Conservancy 523, 541
Nature reserve design 560-564
NatureServe 541, 542
NDVI. see Normalized difference vegetation index
Nearctic biogeographic region 409, 410
Nearshore marine zones
human impacts on 75
importance of kelp in 222, see also Kelp beds
overview and description of 70-72, see also Estuaries; Intertidal
zones/communities; Rocky intertidal zone; Salt marshes
Nectar 340
Needle-leaved evergreen trees 49
Neff, Jason 514
Negative species interactions 379
Nekton 73
Nemani, Ramakrishna 585
Nematodes
effects on host population cycles 301-302 host defenses against 294, 296
human symbionts 290
Nemobius sylvestris 289
Neolamprologus pulcher 197
Neophoca cinerea (Australian sea lion) 189
Neophron percnopterus (Egyptian vulture) 128
Neotamias. see Tamias
Neotoma 306, 307
Neotoma albigula (white-throated woodrat) 307
Neotropical biogeographic region 409, 410
Nereocystis 204
Nereocystis luetkeana (bull kelp) 204
Nest parasitism 559
Net ecosystem exchange (NEE)
defined 455, 457
effects of global climate change on 459, 585
methods of estimating 457-458
Net primary production (NPP)
bottom-up or top-down control of 480
changes during ecosystem development 454
defined 10, 11, 452
effects of deforestation on 458
effects of global climate change on 585, 587
effects of leaf-cutter ants on in tropical forests 349
energy flow between trophic levels and 476-477
environmental controls on 459-464
estimating for aquatic ecosystems 458-459
estimating for terrestrial ecosystems 454-458
global patterns 464-465
plant allocation of 452-454
Net reproductive rate 257-258
Net secondary production 466-467
Netherlands
effects of nitrogen deposition on heathlands 591
habitat corridors and 562
Neuropogon 114
Neutral models of species coexistence 441-443
New Caledonian crow (Corvus moneduloides) 106-107, 126-127, 128
New England salt marshes
positive interactions and the intermediate disturbance hypothesis 439-440
secondary succession in 387-389
New Guinea 410
New Zealand
endemic species in 403
Shag River trophic cascade 481-482
tree species richness in forests 402, 403-404
trematode worm-snail coevolution 299, 300
Ngorongoro Crater lions 236, 238
Niche partitioning 433, see also Resource partitioning
Niche shifts 171-172
Nicholson, A. J. 233-234
Nickel 497
Nicotiana (tobacco) 115, 274
Nicotiana attenuata 274
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH)
in chemosynthesis 109
in photosynthesis 110, 111
Nile perch (Lates niloticus) 530
Nitrate
nitrifying bacteria and 110
nitrogen saturation and 589-590
retention in rivers and streams 511
Nitric acid 588
Nitric oxide 530-531
Nitrification 502
Nitrifying bacteria 109, 110, 502
Nitrite 109, 110
Nitrobacter 110
Nitrogen
aquatic net primary production and 461, 462, 463 atmospheric source 499
decomposition of organic matter and 501-502
effects of invasive species on nitrogen cycling 530-531
in the elemental composition of organisms 496
energy from food and 122
eutrophication and 512
fixation see Nitrogen fixation
functions in plants 497
global nitrogen cycle 577-578
influence on plant photosynthesis 113
isotopes see Nitrogen isotopes
in lakes 511, 512
in marine ecosystems 513
mean residence time 505, 506
mineralization 502
nitrogen content of plants and animals 269
nutrient cycling and long-term ecosystem development 507, 509 in plant and animal nutrition 496, 497
plant uptake of organic nitrogen 502-503, 504
reduced levels of in grazed biocrust 514
in rivers 510
succession in Glacier Bay and 386, 387
Nitrogen deposition 587, 589-591
Nitrogen fertilizers
eutrophication and 591
nitrogen deposition and 589, 591
Nitrogen fixation
in biocrusts 514
biological mechanisms 499, 500
defined 499
global nitrogen cycle and 577-578
Haber-Bosch process 499
in lakes 511
in leaf-cutter ant fungal gardens 349
in marine ecosystems 513
primary succession and 386, 396-397
Nitrogen isotopes
isotopic analyses of heterotroph diets 120-121, 466
isotopic analyses of photosynthetic pathways 120
isotopic analysis of New Caledonian crow food sources 127 in stable isotope analyses 120
Nitrogen saturation 589-590
Nitrogenase 396, 499, 513
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria
in leaf-cutter ant fungal gardens 349
primary succession and 396-397
Nitrosomonas 110
Nitrous oxide
denitrification and 502
global nitrogen cycle and 577, 578
greenhouse effect and 24, 25, 581, 582-583
a greenhouse gas 581, 582, 589
nitrogen saturation and 589
Nonbreeders 158, 176, 177
Non-native species
biodiversity loss and 530-532
biotic resistance and 431
cheatgrass in grasslands 515
effects of global warming on competitive interactions between 327 influence on species-area curves 418
Shag River trophic cascade and 481-482
taxonomic homogenization and 526-528, see also Invasive species
Non-trophic interactions
competition and 267
defined 267
in food webs and interaction webs 357, 358
positive interactions and 268
Normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) 456
North America
continental drift and 410, 411
megafauna extinction 47-48, 76, see also Great Plains; Greater Yellowstone
Ecosystem; Rocky Mountains; Yellowstone National Park
North Atlantic Drift 31
North Atlantic Oscillation 40
North Carolina Sandhills 520-522, 543-544
North Fork Toutle River 377, 376
Northern fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis) 491
Northern Hemisphere, global climate change and 581
Northern pike 490
Northern pocket gopher (Thomomys talpoides) 396, 395
Northern snapping frog (Cyclorana australis) 100
Northern spotted owl (Strix occidentalis caurina) 220, 564
Norwegian lemming (Lemmus lemmus) 232
Nothofagus (southern beeches) 63
Notonecta undulata (backswimmer bug) 442
NOx compounds
acid precipitation and 588
global nitrogen cycle and 577, 578
tropospheric ozone and 594
NPP. see Net primary production
Nucella 487, 487
Nudibranchs 272
Nuptial gifts 192
Nurse logs 368
Nutrient cycling
catchment studies of nutrient losses 506-507, 508
defined 10, 11
definition and overview of 504-505
effects of non-native cheatgrass on 515
factors affecting the rates of 505-506
in lakes 511-512
long-term ecosystem development and 507, 509
in marine ecosystems 512-513
in streams and rivers 510-511, see also Global biogeochemical cycles
Nutrient “spiraling,” 511
Nutrients
amphibian decline and 6, 17
in aquatic ecosystems 510-513
biological soil crust 494-495, 514-515
bottom-up control in the Black Sea ecosystem and 240, 241 carnivorous plants and 312, 328-329
control of aquatic net primary production 461-464 decomposition and nutrient recycling 500-502 defined 495
dust deposition of 596
effects of acid precipitation on 588-589
effects of leaf-cutter ants on nutrient supply and cycling in tropical forests
349
effects of nitrogen deposition on 590
energy from food and 122
human impact on evolution and 152
impact on plant photosynthesis 113
impact on terrestrial net primary production 460-461, 462
internal recycling of nutrients by plants 504
introduction 495
modifications and transformations 500-504
nutrient requirements of organisms 496-497
sources of 497-500
Steller sea lion population decline and 479-480, see also Nutrient cycling
O
Oak woodlands 402, 403
Oak-hickory forests 418
Obligate positive interactions 335-336
Observations
of amphibian decline 1, 3
of global warming 12
scientific method and 15
Occlusion 509
Ocean acidification
atmospheric carbon dioxide and 43, 72, 371-372, 575-576
context dependence of 371-372
effects of 575
impact on coral reef communities 379
impact on coral reefs 72
Ocean currents
downwelling 29
effect on global temperature patterns 32
great ocean conveyor belt 31
surface winds and 29
upwelling 29, 31
Ocean skater (Halobates robustus) 196
Oceanographic Museum of Monaco 354, 355
Oceans
biogeographic regions and 410-411
as carbon pools 573
effects of the overexploitation of top-level predators 532-533
global climate change and impacts on net ecosystem exchange 585 global climate change and ocean acidification see Ocean acidification global climate change and sea level rising 581
global climate change and the spread of coral diseases 306
global nitrogen cycle and 577, 578
global patterns of net primary production 464, 465
global phosphorus cycle 578, 579
global sulfur cycle 579, 580
great ocean conveyor belt 31
human impacts on 75
hydrothermal vent communities see Hydrothermal vent communities impact on regional climate 34, 35
marine biological zones 69-75, see also Marine biological zones nutrients and primary production 512-513
pH values 43
salinity 42
seasonal stratification 39
surface winds and ocean currents 29, 31-32
variation in oxygen concentrations 43, see also Marine ecosystems; Ocean currents; Open ocean
Odobenus rosmarus (walrus) 9, 146, 147
Odum, Eugene 488
Odum, Howard 455, 457
Oenothera biennis (evening primrose) 151
Oesophagostomum stephanostomum 294
Off-road vehicles 495
Offspring
protective egg laying behavior by Drosophila 181, 198 trade-offs between number and size 165-167
variability size and number 157
Ohi'a (Metrosideros polymorpha) 509
Oil spills, bioremediation and 122, 123
Ojibway people 266
Oldfield mouse (Peromyscus polionotus) 183
Old-growth forests
habitat loss and fragmentation 556-557
northern spotted owl and ecosystem management 564
Oligotrophic waters 511
Olneya tesota (desert ironweed) 336
Omnivores/Omnivory
bioaccumulation and biomagnification of pollutants 490 defined 466
digestion 126
estuarine food webs and climate change 371-372
in food webs 357, 358
New Caledonian crows 127
trophic cascades and 481
trophic levels and 474
On the Origin of Species (Darwin)
on disturbance and species diversity 436
on heath communities and cattle grazing 282
on indirect species interactions 364
on natural selection 134
Oncorhynchus mykiss 15—16, 370
Oncorhynchus nerka (sockeye salmon) 23, 491
“Ooze,” 451
Open ocean
description and characteristics of 73-75
energy and biomass pyramids 476
human impacts on 75
nutrients and primary production 463-464, 512-513
Ophiocordyceps unilateralis 289
Opisthosome 467
Optimal foraging theory 184-187, 269
Opuntia stricta 215, 216
Orange-winged sittella (Daphoenositta chrysoptera) 128
Orangutans 125
Orb-weaving spiders 307-308
Orcinus orca. see Killer whale
Organic compounds 108n1
Organic matter, decomposition and mineralization 500-502, 503
Organophosphate resistance 140, 144
Organophosphates 534
Oriental biogeographic region 409, 410
Origin of life 469
Orinoco River 54
Oryctolagus cuniculus (European rabbit) 297-298
Osilinus Iineatus 273
Osmotic adjustment 96
Osmotic potential 95-96
Otago Acclimatisation Society 481
Otters 568
Outbreaks 230
Overexploitation
biodiversity loss and 532-533
impact on different biomes 535
impact on grasslands and the Great Plains 76, 77
top-down control in the Black Sea eco-system and 240, 241, see also
Commercial fishing; Deforestation; Livestock grazing
Overkill hypothesis 76
Ovipositors 336
Ovis canadensis (bighorn sheep) 132, 133-134, 151, 191
Oxbow lakes 68
Oxidation-reduction reactions 109
Oxygen
in the atmosphere 499
in the elemental composition of organisms 496
factors affecting oxygen concentrations in the environment 43 functions in plants 497
hypoxic soils 337
photorespiration and 115
photosynthesis and 111
stable isotopes 120
Oxygenated nitrogen compounds 577, 578
Oystercatchers 185-186
Oysters, ecological restoration and 564
Ozone 111, 592-594
Ozone hole 593, 594
P
Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) 40, 44, 45, 77
Pacific Islands
biogeography and 410
human-caused extinctions 525, 526
Pacific Ocean
effects of iron fertilization on net primary production 463-464 great ocean conveyor belt 31
Pacific tree frog (Pseudacris regilla) 3-4, 395
Paedomorphosis 172
Paine, Robert 328, 437, 487-488
Paleartic biogeographic region 409, 410
Pallid sturgeon (Scaphirhynchus albus) 534
Pan troglodytes (chimpanzee) 106, 294
Pangaea 409, 410, 411
Panicum virgatum (switchgrass) 116
Panther chameleon (Furcifer pardalis) 212
Paracentrotus lividus 165
“Paradox the of the Plankton, The” (Hutchinson) 436-437
Paragordius tricuspidatus 289
Paramecium 433
Paramecium bursaria 317, 318
Paramecium caudatum 317, 318
Parasites/Parasitism
advantages and disadvantages of ectoparasitism and endoparasitism 293
climate change and the spread of diseases 305-306, 307
counterdefenses of 295-296, 297
defensive mechanisms of hosts 293-295, 296
defined 108, 267, 290
ectoparasites 291-292
effects on communities 304-305, 306
endoparasites 292-293
enslaver parasites 289-290, 293, 307-308, 309
host-parasite population dynamics 300-304
introduction 290-291
negative effects of 290-291
overview 291
parasite natural history 291-293
parasite-host coevolution 297-300
parasites of leaf-cutter ant fungal gardens 348-349
parasitoids 268, see also Parasitoids
Ribeiroia ondatrae and amphibian decline 3-4, 5, 6, 12, 13, 17 service mutualisms of coral reef fishes and 345-346 species interactions and 268
trade-offs in host-parasite systems 300
Parasitic plants 291
Parasitic wasps 149
Parasitoid wasps
defenses of Drosophila against 295
as enslaver parasites 307-308
example of 268
trade-offs in host-parasite systems 300
Parasitoids
defenses of Drosophila against wasp parasitoids 295 definition and overview of 268
effects on communities 280
trade-offs in host-parasite systems 300
Pardosa Iittoralis 440
Parent material 498
Parental care
gamete size and 192-193
protective egg laying behavior by Drosophila 181, 198
Parental investment
mating behavior and 193-194
in small-sized offspring 169-170
Park, Thomas 304, 305
Parmesan, Camille 583
Part, Tomas 169
Parus major (great tit) 185, 186
Passenger pigeon (Ectopistes migratorius) 523
Passerina cyanea (indigo bunting) 563
Patchy distributions
metapopulations and 218-221, see also Metapopulations
overview and description of 210-212
Pathogens
defined 290
extinction of host populations and 301
global climate change and the spread of diseases 305-306, 307
impact on host population cycles 301-302
malaria-causing Plasmodium falciparum 295-296, 297 models of host-pathogen population dynamics to control diseases 302-304, see also Diseases
PCBs. see Polychlorinated biphenyls
PDO. see Pacific Decadal Oscillation
Pea aphid (Acyrthosiphon pisum) 294-295
Peacock butterfly (Aglais io) 189
Pediculus 290
Pelagic zone
lakes 69
oceans 70, 73-74
Pelicans 412, 413
Pellmyr, Olle 341-343
Pelvetiopsis Iimitata 390
Pelvic bone 135
Penalties, in mutualisms 341-343
Penguins 412, 413
PEPcase. see Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase
Peppered moth (Biston betularia) 152, 153
Per capita finite rate of increase 247
Per capita growth rate 258
Per capita intrinsic rate of increase 247
Perceived risk, foraging behavior of prey and 188, 199
Perch 490
Peregrine falcons 490
Perihelion 38
Permafrost 64, 65, 506
Peromyscus leucopus (white-footed mouse) 557, 558
Peromyscus maniculatus (deer mouse) 183, 231-232, 427
Peromyscus polionotus (oldfield mouse) 183
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs)
bioaccumulation and biomagnification 472-473, 489-490, 491 biodiversity loss and 534
biological transport 490-491
Peru 562
Pesticide resistance 140, 144
Pesticides
amphibian decline and 5-6, 17
in breast milk of Inuit mothers 473
negative impact on populations 534
Petrels 412
Phalaenopsis 119
Phalaropus fulicarius (red phalarope) 181, 194
Pheidole 482-483
Phenotype
defined 136
mutations and 136-137
natural selection and 137,138
Phenotypic plasticity
adaptation and 161
life history variations and 159-161
responses to global climate change and 143-144
Phlebotomus 307
Phoca vitulina (harbor seal) 534
Phosphate, retention in rivers and streams 511
Phosphite 109
Phosphite bacteria 109
Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPcase) 116, 117, 118,119
Phosphoglyceraldehyde 111
Phosphorus
aquatic net primary production and 461, 462
atmospheric deposition of 500
in the elemental composition of organisms 496 eutrophication and 512, 513
functions in plants 497
global cycle 578, 579
in lakes 511, 512, 513
mean residence time 505, 506
nutrient cycling and long-term ecosystem development 507, 509
in nutrition 497
reduced levels in grazed biocrust 514
terrestrial net primary production and 461
transfer between plants and mycorrhizae 342
Phosphorus fertilizers 578, 579
Photic zone
lakes 69, 511
oceans 70, 73, 74
upwelling and 29
Photodegradation 503
Photons, photosynthesis and 110
Photorespiration 115, 116
Photosynthesis
autotrophy and 108, 109
early studies of and overview of 110
elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide levels and 574-575 energy and 107, 108
environmental constraints and solutions 111-113,114
gross primary production 452, 453
light-driven and carbon reactions 110-111
net reaction of 111
pathways of see Photosynthetic pathways
primary production and 452, see also Photosynthetic pathways
Photosynthetic bacteria 110, 111-112
Photosynthetic organisms 108, see also Autotrophs/Autotrophy
Photosynthetic pathways
C3 photosynthesis 115
C4 photosynthesis 115-117
crassulacean acid metabolism 118-119
overview 114-115
photorespiration 115
strategies for identifying 119-120
Phreagena kilmeri 469
Phrynosoma (horned lizards) 186
Physical environment
animal behavior and 182-184
atmospheric and oceanic circulation 26-32
carrying capacity and 253, 261-262
chemical environment 41-43
climate 23-26
climate variation and ecology 45
climate variation and salmon abundance 22-23, 44
climate variation over time 38-41
coping with environmental variation see Physiological ecology
effects of parasites on ecosystem engineers and 305, 306
global climate patterns 32-34
impact on community membership 429, 430-431
impact on competition and species distribution 325-326
introduction 23
local species diversity and 406, 407
plants as indicators of 82
regional climate influences 34-37
species distribution and 82, 83
Physiological ecology
dessication tolerance 102-103
effects of temperature on physiology 86
energy see Energy
freeze tolerance in frogs 80-81, 101-102
introduction 81-82
overview of responses to environmental variation 82-85 responses of organisms to variation in temperature 85-94 responses of organisms to variation in water availability 94-101 tolerance and avoidance 81
Phytophthora ramorum 293
Phytoplankton
aquatic net primary production and 461, 462, 463
Black Sea ecosystem and 226, 227, 230, 240, 241
energy and biomass pyramids of aquatic ecosystems 476
energy flow between trophic levels in aquatic ecosystems 477
IronEx I experiment to reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide and 463-464 in lakes 69, 511
methods of estimating aquatic net primary production 458-459
in the pelagic ocean zone 73, 74 population fluctuations 230, 231
species coexistence and resource mediation 436-437
species coexistence and resource partitioning 434-435
in upwelling zones 29
Picea obovata (Siberian spruce) 81
Picea sitchensis (Sitka spruce) 385, 386, 387
Picoides borealis (red-cockaded woodpecker) 520-522, 541, 543-544
Picoplankton 463
Piercing mouthparts 123
Pigments, in photosynthesis 110, 111
Piliocolobus waldronae (Miss Waldron's red colobus monkey) 532
Pine forests
elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide levels and 574-575
global climate change and the mountain pine beetle 568, 569
habitat corridors and 562-563
studies of succession 383, 382
Pine savannas
longleaf pine savanna and the red-cockaded woodpecker 520-522, 541, 543
544
in mountain biological zones 66
Pine warbler (Setophaga pinus) 126
Pine-and-aspen forests 66
Pingo 65
Pink salmon 23
Pinnipeds 146,147
Pinon pine (Pinus edulis) 24
Pinon pine and juniper woodland 59
Pinus albicaulis (whitebark pine) 568, 569
Pinus contorta (lodgepole pine) 231
Pinus contorta var. latifolia 551
Pinus edulis (pinon pine) 24
Pinus palustris (longleaf pine) 520, 521
Pinus ponderosa (ponderosa pine) 160, 568
Pinus taeda (loblolly pine) 574-575
Pinworms 290
Pioneer species 381
Pioneer stage 387, 385, 386
Pipefish 194
Piper cenocladum 482-483
Pisaster 280, 437
Pisaster keystone species 488
Pisaster ochraceus 367, 487-488, 526
Pistol shrimp 339-340
Pitcher plants 312-313, 329
Plague 290, 293
Planktivorous fish 240, 241
Plankton
lakes 69
pelagic ocean zone 73, 74, see also Phytoplankton; Zooplankton
Plants
acid precipitation and 587, 588-589
assimilation efficiency of herbivores and 478
as autotrophs 108
as carbon pools 573
carnivorous plants 312-313, 328-329
climate warming and extinction of plant-pollinator networks 346, 347 clones and individuals 206-207
competition for aboveground and belowground resources 314-315 complex life cycles 164-165
continuing consequences of global climate change 586-587
defenses against parasites 294
dessication tolerance 103
dietary preferences of herbivores 269, 270
dispersal distances 217
ectoparasites of 291-292
effects of elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide levels on 574-575
effects of global climate change on geographic range 583, 584
effects of invasive species on species diversity 360
effects of nitrogen deposition on 589, 590
effects of soil pH on diversity 498
effects of soil temperature on positive interactions 337
effects of temperature on membranes and 86
effects of tropospheric ozone on 594
elemental composition 496
endoparasites of 292, 293
endosperm 170
energy flow between trophic levels and 476-477
evolution and plant-herbivore interactions 275-276
evolutionary responses to global climate change 143-144
facultative positive interactions 336-337
fig-fig wasp mutualism 336
“forest specialists,” 345
gene flow and local adaptation 144
gross primary production 452, 453
growth forms and the classification of terrestrial biomes 49-50 impact on climate via surface energy exchange 36-37 as indicators of the physical environment 82
internal heat generation 90
internal recycling of nutrients 504
joint effects of ecology and evolution on sunflowers 150
life history classification scheme 174-175, 176
methods of estimating terrestrial net primary production 454-458 modification of energy balance by 86-89, 90
mycorrhizae 334-335, 341, 342, 346, 348
net primary production 425-454
nitrogen content 269
nitrogen fixation and 499, 500
number of imperiled species 522
nutrient requirements 496-497
parasitic plants 108, 291
photosynthesis and 108, 110-121, see also Photosynthesis
plant diversity and food web stability 488-489
population viability analysis and management of rare plants 539 reciprocal interactions with herbivores 272-275
relative neighbor effect 338-339
rewards in mutualisms and 340, 341
riparian vegetation 68
semelparity and iteoparity 172, 173
species richness and human landscape legacies 554-555 succession 381-382, 383, see also Succession trade-offs between reproduction and growth 168 trophic level occupied by 474
uptake of organic nitrogen 502-503, 504
water balance 96-98
waterlogged soils and 98
yucca plant-yucca moth mutualism 341-343, see also Aspens; Cacti;
Leaves; Pollination; Roots; Seeds; Shrubs; Trees
Plasmodium 290
Plasmodium azurophilum 305
Plasmodium falciparum 291, 295-296, 297
Plastic garbage 75
Plated leaf chameleon (Brookesia stumpfii) 212
Platyprepia virginalis (tiger moth) 294
Plectroglyphidodon lacrymatus 441, 443
Pleistocene epoch 47, 48, 76
Plesiometa argyra 307-308
Plethodontids 165
Pleurophopsis extenta 469
Poa annua (annual bluegrass) 159, 253
Poaching 133
Podocarps 63
Point sampling 208
Poison dart frog (Dendrobates tinctorius) 138
Poisons. see Toxins
Polar bear (Ursus maritimus) 216-217
Polar cells 27, 28, 33
Polar zones
biome distribution and characteristics 51
human impact on 51
location of 28
patterns of precipitation and temperature 50
principle threats to 535
seasonality and 39
Pollicipes 487-488
Pollination
climate warming and extinction of plant-pollinator networks 346, 347
ecological impact of species loss in bird pollinators 526, 527
fig-fig wasp mutualism 336
nectar rewards and 340
Pollock 479
Pollutants
bioaccumulation of persistent organic pollutants 472-473, 489-490
biological transport of 490-491
retention in rivers and streams 511
Pollution
biodiversity loss and 533, 534
human impact on evolution and 152, 153
impact on different biomes 535
impact on lotic ecosystems 68
Polyandry 195
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) 534
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) 491, 534
Polygyny 194-195
Polyps 162
Pomacea canaliculata (golden apple snail) 270, 282-283
Pomacentrid fishes 441, 443
Pomacentrus wardi 441, 443
Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) 160, 568
Pools (of elements)
defined 505
in global biogeochemical cycles 572-573
global carbon cycle 573
global nitrogen cycle 577
global phosphorus cycle 578, 579
global sulfur cycle 579, 580
lotic ecosystems 67
Population cycles
definition and description of 232-233
effects of parasites on host population cycles 301-302
snowshoe hares 266-267, 284-287, see also Predator-prey population cycles
Population density
abundance and 205
effects on population growth 249-253
Population dynamics
effects of habitat patches on 553
effects of invasive Mnemiopsis comb jellies on the Black Sea ecosystem 226-227, 230, 231, 240
effects of trophic efficiencies on 479-480
host-parasite population dynamics 300-304
introduction 227-228
kelp forest-urchin barren dynamics 204-205, 213, 215, 221-222, 223, 364365
patterns of population growth 229-234
population extinction 235-238
Population fluctuations
definition and description of 230-232
demographic stochasticity and 236-237
population extinctions and 235, 236-237
Population growth
Allee effects and 237, 239
effects of density on 249-253
exponential growth 229-230 geometric growth 246-247 growth by multiplication 248-249
human population growth see Human population growth introduction 245-246
logistic growth 253-255
models of 245-246
overview 229
population abundance and 227-228
population cycles 232-234
population fluctuations 230-232
Population growth rates
defined 247
doubling time and 248
effects of density-dependent factors on 250, 253
effects of density-independent factors on 251 growth by multiplication and 248-249 methods of estimating 247, 248, 258, 259 r-K continuum and 173-174, 175, 176
Population regulation 252
Population sinks 562
Population size
abundance and 205
changes in see Population dynamics
doubling time 248
effects of density-dependent factors on 251-253
effects of density-independent factors on 250-251 extinction risks to small populations 235-238, 239 interaction strengths in food webs and 487-489 population growth and see Population growth predicting from cohort tables 258
Population viability analysis (PVA) 538-539
Populations
adaptation to environmental variation 84-85
buffer zones and population sinks 562
defined 8-9, 205-206
determining individuals in 206-207
distribution and abundance 205, 207-218, see Abundance; Distribution ecological studies and 8
effects of density on population growth 249-253
effects of global climate change on population extinctions 584 evolution and 134, 136
evolutionary consequences of habitat fragmentation 152, 153
gene flow and 139-140
genetic drift and 137-139,140
interaction strengths in food webs 487-489
kelp forest-urchin barren dynamics 204-205, 213, 215, 221-222, 223 life tables 255-260
Lotka-Volterra competition model and 321-324 metapopulations 218-221
r-K continuum and 173-174, 175, 176
species diversity and population viability 361
Populus tremuloides (quaking aspen) 82, 83, 206, 207, 391, see also Aspens Portfolio effect 489
Posidonia oceanica 372
Positive interactions
characteristics of mutualisms 339-343, see also Mutualisms
definition and overview of 268, 333
ecological consequences of 343-348
intermediate disturbance hypothesis and 439-440
leaf-cutter ants-fungi mutualism 332-333, 335-336, 339, 348-349
obligate or facultative positive interactions 335-337
in stressful environments 338-339
trophic facilitations 365
types of 333-334
variability in costs and benefits 337
Postelsia palmaeformis (sea palm) 328, 329
Potamopyrgus antipodarum 299, 300
Potassium/Potassium ions
acid precipitation and 588
in the elemental composition of organisms 496
functions in plants 497
mean residence time 506
nitrogen saturation and 590
Potato soft rot 292
Potential energy, of water 95
Powell, Kristin 418
Power, Mary 370
Prairies
plant diversity and food web stability 489
species diversity and community functions 444, see also Grasslands;
Tallgrass prairies
Precipitation
acid precipitation 500, 578, 579, 587-589
atmospheric circulation cells and 27
average annual terrestrial precipitation 33
climate diagrams 52
determinant of terrestrial biomes 50
effect of mountains on 34-36
effect of proximity to oceans on 34
factors affecting global precipitation patterns 33-34
global climate change and 581
influence on terrestrial net primary production 459-460
long-term research on fire and tallgrass prairies 77
methods of measuring wet deposition of nutrients 508
rain shadow effect 35
seasonality and Mediterranean-type climate 24
terrestrial biomes see Terrestrial biomes
vegetation's effect on regional climate and 36-37
Predation
definition and overview of 267
dietary preferences of carnivores and herbivores 269-270
effects on communities 280-283
interaction with dispersal to influence species diversity 442 mechanisms important to 270-276
Menge-Sutherland model and 440-441
predator-prey population cycles 276-279
snowshoe hare population cycles 266-267, 284-287
species diversity and the intermediate disturbance hypothesis 437-438
species interactions and 268
trophic cascade in a lowland tropical forest and 482-483
Predator-prey interactions
chronic stress induced by predators 286-287
effects of climate change on 283, 284, 535
population cycles and 233
reciprocal evolution and 148-149, 150
Predator-prey population cycles
laboratory experiments on 278-279
Lotka-Volterra predator-prey model 276-278
in natural populations 279
snowshoe hare cycles 266-267, 284-286
Predators
amphibian decline and introduced predators 15-16
antipredator behaviors of prey 188-190
benefits of group living for prey and 195-196
chronic stress in prey and 286-287
defined 108, 267 ecological effects of behavioral responses to 199 effects of invasive predators on biodiversity 530 effects of the overexploitation of top-level fish predators 532-533 fear of predators and its effect on prey 188, 199 habitat fragmentation and the loss of top predators 557 impact on energy flow between trophic levels 477 impact on foraging behavior of prey 187-188 impact on the number of trophic levels 483, 484 plant diversity and prairie food web stability 489 reciprocal evolution with prey 148-149, 150 rocky intertidal food webs and 486-487, 488
top-down control in the Black Sea ecosystem and 240, 241 trophic cascades and 481
wolf reintroduction in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem 547-548, 565-567
Prescribed burning 544
Pressure, water movement and 95
Pressure potential 95
Prevailing winds
atmospheric circulation cells and 28, 29, 30
El-Nino events and 40
mountain-influence precipitation patterns and 34-35
Prey
antipredator behaviors 188-190
antipredator defenses 271-272
benefits of group living 195-196
chronic stress induced by predators 286-287
community effects of predation and 280-281
defined 108, 267
dietary preferences of carnivores and 269
ecological effects of behavioral responses to predators 199
effects of predators on the foraging behavior of 187-188 fear of predators and 188, 199
mechanisms for capturing by carnivores 271
reciprocal evolution with prey 148-149, 150, see also Predator-prey interactions; Predator-prey population cycles
Prides 180-181
Primary carnivores 474, 476, 480
Primary consumers 357
Primary producers
bottom-up or top-down control of energy flow 480 defined 11
energy and biomass pyramids 476
energy flow between trophic levels and 476-477 in food webs and interaction webs 357 ocean acidification and 371-372
trophic level occupied by 474
definition and overview 452
effects of nitrogen deposition on 589
gross primary production 452, 453
influence on the number of trophic levels 484
latitudinal gradients in species diversity and 415
net primary production 452-465, see also Net primary production nutrient cycling and long-term ecosystem development 507, 509 nutrients in the open ocean and 512-513
trophic cascade in a lowland tropical forest and 482-483
Primary succession
definition and overview of 381
Glacier Bay, Alaska 385-387
importance of nitrogen fixation in 500
on Mount St. Helens 397, 395
mutualisms and 396-397
rocky intertidal communities 389-390
Primates
overexploitation and extinctions 532
toolmaking 106
“Prince Axel's wonder fish” (Thaumatichthys axeli) 74
Proclossiana eunomia (bog fritillary butterfly) 553
Producers 10, 11
Production. see Primary production; Secondary production
Production efficiency 477, 478
Prokaryotes
bioremediation and 122,123
food absorption by heterotrophs 122
fossil record of 148, see also Archaea; Bacteria
Promiscuity 195
Pronghorn 76
Pronking behavior 189
Propagules 166
Proteins
effects of temperature on 86
energy from food and 122
Protists
dormancy 170
gut biota and 126
in lakes 69
malaria-causing Plasmodium falciparum 295-296, 297
number of imperiled species 522
Protons, acidity and 43
Protozoans 124
Proximate causes 181, 182
Pseudacris maculata (boreal chorus frog) 81
Pseudacris regilla (Pacific tree frog) 3-4, 395
Pseudomyrmex 343-345
Pseudomyrmex spinicola 344
Pseudotsuga menziesii (Douglas fir) 62, 63, 168, 395
Ptiloris victoriae (Victoria's riflebird) 190
Pubescence 87-88, 89, 90
Pueraria montana (kudzu) 314, 530-531
Puijila darwini 146,147
Puma concolor coryi (Florida panther) 536
Pumas 536
Pumice Plain 377, 395, 396, 376, 381, 394
Purple sulfur bacteria 109
PVA. see Population viability analysis
Pygoscelis adeliae (Adelie penguin) 186, 187
Pyrenean ibex (Capra pyrenaica pyrenaica) 528
Pyrenestes ostrinus (African seedcracker) 138
Pyrite 579
Q
Quadrats 208
Quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) 82, 206, 207, 391
Quillworts (Isoetes) 118
Raab, Ted 502-503
Rabbits 297-298, see also Snowshoe hare
Radiant energy 107
Radiotelemetry 548
Ragwort (Senecio jacobaea) 325
Ragwort flea beetles 325
Rain shadow effect 35
Rainbow trout 15-16
Ramets 207
Rana 100
Rana aurora 395
Rana cascadae 395
Rana muscosa (yellow-legged frog) 15-16
Rana sylvatica. see Wood frog
Random dispersion 210
Range. see Geographic range
Rangifer tarandus (caribou) 161
Rank abundance curves 361-362
Rarity (rare species) 102, 540-541, 542
Rats
enslaver parasites and 290
foraging in macademia nut plantations 550-551
Reactive nitrogen 577, 578, 589
Realized niche 313, 314
Receptacle 336
Recombination, sexual reproduction and 163
Recruitment, Menge-Sutherland model and 440-441
Rectum 125
Red algae 389-390, 522
Red blood cells, malaria and 295-296, 297
Red clover (Trifolium pratense) 499
Red crossbill (Loxia curvirostra) 124,125
Red deer 145, 194
Red fox (Vulpes fulva) 152
Red grouse (Lagopus lagopus) 301-302
Red kangaroo (Macropus rufus) 211
Red List of Threatened Species 521, 541
Red phalarope (Phalaropus fulicarius) 181, 194
Red rock crab (Cancer productus) 432
Red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) 93
Redback spider (Latrodectus hasselti) 192
Red-cockaded woodpecker (Picoides borealis) 520-522, 541, 543-544
Redford, Kent 532
Redman, Regina 340
Redundancy hypothesis 445
Redundant species 369
Reefs 72, see also Coral reefs
Rees, William 262
Regiella insecticola 295
Regime shifts 394
Regional biogeography
equilibrium theory of island biogeography 419-422
species-area relationship 416-419
Regional climate 34-37
Regional scale, of species diversity 405
Regional species pool 405, 406, 429
Regional species richness 406, 407
Regular dispersion 210
Relative population size 207
Relyea, Rick 17
Remote sensing
of aquatic net primary production 458-459 landscape analysis and 548, 549
of terrestrial net primary production 454, 455, 456
Replication, in ecological experiments 13, 14
Reproduction
advantages and disadvantages of sexual reproduction 162-164 asexual reproduction 162-163
density-dependence in song birds 252
fecundity 257
life histories and 162-164
mating behavior 190-195
mating systems 194-195
net reproductive rate 257-258
snowshoe hare population cycles and 266-267
trade-offs between current and delayed reproduction 169 trade-offs between number and size of offspring 165-167 trade-offs with other life history traits 167-168
trade-offs with survival 145
variability in offspring size and number 157
Reproductive success. see Fitness
Reptiles
body temperature and basking behavior 91
number of imperiled species 522
water balance 100, see also Lizards; Snakes
Rescue effect 221
Resistance, to water movement 95
Resistance genes 294
Resource distribution maps 435
Resource mediation
intermediate disturbance hypothesis and elaborations 437-440 lottery and neutral models 441-443
Menge-Sutherland model 440-441
species coexistence and 436-437
species interactions and 436
Resource partitioning (niche partitioning)
character displacement and 319-320
definition and description of 318-319, 433
overview and models of 433
plant uptake of nitrogen and 503, 504
species coexistence and 329, 433-435
Resource ratio hypothesis 434-435
Resources
bottom-up control of energy flow and 480
competition and 314-320, see also Competition
defined 313
fundamental niche and realized niche concepts 313-314
human population growth and ecological footprint 260-262
productivity hypothesis of species diversity and 415
species coexistence and resource partitioning 433-435, see also Resource partitioning
species diversity and resource mediation 436-443
Respiration
aerobic respiration and atmospheric oxygen 111
net ecosystem exchange and 457
net primary production and 452
using to estimate terrestrial net primary production 455
Restoration ecology 563-564
Rewards, in mutualisms 340-341
Rhabdothamnus solandri 527
Rhagoletis pomonella (apple maggot fly) 149
Rhinoceroses 157
Rhinophylla pumilio 553
Rhizobia (Rhizobiaceae) 397, 396, 499
Rhizophagus irregularis 342
Rhodinia fugax 272
Rhododendron ferrugineum 339
Ribeiroia ondatrae 3-4, 5, 6, 12, 13, 17
Ribonucleic acid (RNA), effects of UVB on 593
Ribulose 1,5 bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (rubisco) 111, 115, 120
Rice weevils 249
Rieseberg, Loren 150
Riffles 67
Riftia 450, 467, 468
Ring-tailed lemurs 197
Riparian forests/vegetation 68, 566-567
River continuum concept 68, 462
Rivers/River communities
context dependence of species interactions 370 effects of nutrients on net primary production 462 estuaries 70
factors affecting biological communities in 67-68 global phosphorus cycle and 579
global sulfur cycle 579, 580
human impact on 68
nitrogen deposition and 590-591
nutrient input to estuaries and 463, 512
nutrients and nutrient cycling in 510-511 retention of pollutants 511
spatial zonation 68
trophic cascade example 481-482 unanticipated effects of dams 6
Roach (Hesperoleucas symmetricus) 370
Robock, Alan 380
Rock pocket mouse (Chaetodipus intermedius) 136
Rocks
as carbon pools 573
mineral sources of nutrients 497-499
Rocky intertidal zone
description and characteristics of 71
effects of climate change on predator-prey interactions 535 interaction strength of sea star predation on mussels 367 interaction strengths and keystone species in food webs 487-488 intermediate disturbance hypothesis 438
primary succession in 389-390
resource mediation and species coexistence 437, see also Intertidal zones/communities
Rocky Mountains
effects of dust movement from the Colorado Plateau on 596-597 elevational bands of biological communities 66
global climate change and elevational shifts in vegetation zones 586 influence on air masses and temperature 36
Rodents
climate change and the spread of diseases 306, 307
competition with desert ants 315-316, 317
emerging zoonotic diseases and 427, 428, 446 tolerance for water loss 100, see also Rats
Rodriguez, Russell 340
Roman ruins 554-555
Root, Richard B. 14, 227-228
Root nodules 397, 396
Roots
herbivores and 270
methods of estimating net primary production 454, 455
mycorrhizae 334-335, 341, 342, 346, 348
nitrogen fixation and 499
nitrogen-fixing bacteria 396-397
plant allocation of net primary production and 453
plant water balance and 96-97
waterlogged soils and 98
Rose-breasted grosbeak 124
Rosenzweig, Michael 413-414
Rotifers 69
Rough-skinned newt (Taricha granulosa) 395, 271
Rowland, Sherwood 593
r-selection 173, 174, 175, 176
Rubidium 496
Rubisco. see Ribulose 1,5 bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase
Rudbeckia Iaciniata 360
Rudd 490
Ruderals 174, 175
Rumen 126
Rumex alpinus 360
Ruminants 126
Rumination 126
“Runners,” 206
Ruth, Stephen 3
Rutz, Christian 127
Sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) 59
Saguaro cactus (Carnegiea gigantea) 214, 215
Sahara Desert 56, 57, 500
Sahel region 57
Sala, Osvaldo 460
Salamanders
amphibian decline and 1, 3
direct development 165 paedomorphosis 172 succession on Mount St. Helens 395
water balance in 100
Sale, Peter 441, 443
Salicornia europaea 440
Salinas y Aguada Blanca National Reserve 9
Salinity
definition and description of 42-43
water balance in animals and 99-100
Salinization 42-43, 57
Salmo trutta (brown trout) 481-482
Salmon
biological transport of pollutants 491
climate variation and abundance of 22-23, 44
Salt marshes
community effects of herbivory by lesser snow geese 281-282
description and characteristics of 70-71
positive interactions and the intermediate disturbance hypothesis 439-440 salinity 42
secondary succession in 387-389
trophic facilitations 365
Saltbush (Atriplex) 59
Salts
salinity and 42-43
secondary succession in salt marshes 387-389
water balance and see Water balance
Saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) 91
Salvelinus fontinalis (brook trout) 15-16
Sampling efforts, species accumulation curves and 361-362, 363
Sand 497, 498
Sand crab (Corystes cassivelaunus) 171
Sand dune communities 381-382
Sand flies 306, 307
Sandquist, Darren 88
Sandy beach communities/Sandy shores 71-72, 345
Sangar 34, 35
Santa Rosa National Park 563
Sapwood 160
Sarcophilus harrisii (Tasmanian devil) 534
Sarcoptes scabiei 290
Sardinops sagax 196
Sargassum 74
Sarracenia alata 312-313, 329
SARS-CoV-2. see Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2
Satellites, remote sensing and 455, 456, 458-459
Saturation point, for species richness 406
Saturniid moths 272
Saussurea medusa (snow lotus) 89, 90
Savannah River Ecology Laboratory 562-563
Savannas
allocation of net primary production to roots 453
biome distribution and characteristics 54, 55
fire and 54
global patterns of net primary production 465
habitat loss, conservation biology, and longleaf pine savanna 520-522, 541, 543-544
human impact on 55
lower montane zone 66
prescribed burning and 544
vegetation's effect on climate and 36
Scabies 290
Scale
defined 552
of ecological studies and experiments 8, 13 landscape ecology and 552-553, see also Spatial scale
Scaphirhynchus albus (pallid sturgeon) 534
Sceloporus 584
Sceloporus occidentalis (western fence lizard) 166-167
Schindler, David 461-462
Schistosoma mansoni 446
Schistosomiasis 6
Schizachyrium condensatum (bush beardgrass) 217
Schizachyrium scoparium 314-315
Schizoporella 392
Schoener, Thomas 280-281, 318
Scientific method 15
Sclerophyllous leaves 58
Sclerophyllous shrubs 49, 58
Scolex 292
Scorpions 101
Scotch fir 282
Sea cucumbers 189
Sea otter (Enhydra lutris)
kelp forest-urchin barren dynamics and 215, 221-222, 223 keystone species 368
sea otter-sea urchin-killer whale trophic cascade 481
trophic cascades 364-365
Sea palm (Postelsia palmaeformis) 328, 329
Sea slugs 108, 109
Sea stars
biodiversity loss and 526
disturbance and species coexistence in rocky intertidal communities 437 effects of climate change on predator-prey interactions in rocky intertidal zones 535
interaction strength of predation on mussels 367 predator-prey cycles and 279
predator-prey cycles and 280
rocky intertidal food webs and 487-488
Sea urchins
complex life cycles 165
effects of global climate change on geographic ranges 213
functional specialization of larvae 171
kelp forest-urchin barren dynamics 204-205, 213, 215, 221-222, 223, 364
365
natural catastrophes and mass mortality in 238
sea otter-sea urchin-killer whale trophic cascade 481
Seabirds
community effects of Arctic fox predation on 281
latitudinal pattern of species diversity in 412, 413
Seafloor spreading 409, 410
Seagrass meadows
description and characteristics of 72-73
net primary production of nearshore zones and 463
threats from Caulerpa taxifolia 372
Seals
evolutionary tree of pinnipeds 146,147
natural catastrophes and mass mortality in 238
Seasonality
causes of 38-39
effects of global climate change on 161
in precipitation 24
Seaweeds
Caulerpa taxifolia as an invasive species 354-355, 372, 373 kelp beds see Kelp beds
net primary production of open oceans and 463
Sargassum and gas bladders 74
Secchi disk 512, 513
Second law of thermodynamics 475
Secondary carnivores 474, 476, 480
Secondary compounds
decomposition of plant litter and 502
definition and description of 273-274
food and 122
herbivore counterdefenses 274-275 plant defenses against parasites and 294
Secondary consumers 357
Secondary production 465-467
Secondary succession
definition and overview of 381
New England salt marsh 387-389
species interactions in mountain forests and 391
Second-growth forests 61
Sedges 49, 503
Sediments
as carbon pools 573
global phosphorus cycle 578, 579
global sulfur cycle 579, 580
as nitrogen pools 577
Seeds
competition between ants and rodents for 315-316, 317 dormancy 170
endosperm 170
facultative positive interactions and 336-337
herbivores and 270
plant responses to reduce herbivory and 272
Selaginella Iepidophylla 103
Selenium 497
Semelparity 172-173
Semibalanus balanoides 216, 314, 325-326
Senecio jacobaea (ragwort) 325
Sequential hermaphroditism 176
Sequoiadendron giganteum (giant sequoia) 403-404
Serengeti Plain 47
Serratia marcescens 163-164
Service mutualisms 345-346
Sessile organisms 71
Sessions, Stanley 3
Setophaga 126, 434
Setophaga castanea (bay-breasted warbler) 434
Setophaga coronata (yellow-rumped warbler) 434
Setophaga fusca (Blackburnian warbler) 434
Setophaga pinus (pine warbler) 126
Setophaga tigrina (Cape May warbler) 434
Setophaga virens (black-throated warbler) 434
Settlement lotteries 177
Sevilleta National Wildlife Refuge 232
Sewage
human impact on evolution and 152
lake eutrophication and 512, 513
Sex change, sequential hermaphroditism 176
Sexual cannibalism (sexual suicide) 192
Sexual reproduction. see Reproduction
Sexual selection 190-193
Seychelles warbler (Acrocephalus sechellensis) 215, 216
Shag River 481-482
Shallow ocean zone 70, 72-73
Shannon index 358-359
Sheep 230
Sheep blowfly (Lucilia cuprina) 233-234
Short-grass steppes 460
Shredders 68
Shrimp nets 259
Shrubs
divaricating shrubs 403, 404
evergreen shrubs 48
Mediterranean-type shrublands 58-59, 60
sclerophyllous shrubs 49, 58
tropical rainforests 53, see also Temperate shrublands and woodlands
Shumway, Scott 387, 388-389
Shurin, Jonathan 442
Siberia 34, 35
Siberian spruce (Picea obovata) 81
Sierra National Forest 588
Sierra Nevada 594
Silent Spring (Carson) 489-490
Silica 315, 316
Silicon 496
Silt 497
Simberloff, Daniel 421
Sin Nombre virus (SNV) 427, 428, 446
Sinervo, Barry 166-167
Sinks, metapopulations and 219
Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) 385, 386, 387
Six-spotted mite (Eotetranychus sexmaculatus) 278-279
Skimmers 124
Skin
melanin and pigmentation 592
water balance in animals and 100, 101
Skin cancer 592, 593
Skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) 91
Skipper butterfly (Hesperia comma) 220-221
Skuas 412
Skulls, snakes 271
Skunk cabbage (Symplocarpus foetidus) 90
Slash-and-burn agriculture 562
Slatyer, Ralph 383
Sleep, bears and long-term winter sleep 94
Slug caterpillars 189
Small populations
extinction risks 235-238, 239
extinction vortex 525-526
genetic drift and 138-139,140
Small-flowered forget-me-not (Myosotis laxa) 337
Small-sized organisms
dispersal and dormancy 170,171
parental investment and 169-170
Snails
species diversity and parasite transmission 446
trematode worm-snail coevolution in New Zealand 299, 300
Snakes
antipredator behaviors 189
mechanisms for capturing prey 271
Snow goose (Chen caerulescens) 161
Snow lotus (Saussurea medusa) 89, 90
Snowmelt, effects of dust movement on 596-597
Snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus)
antipredator behavior 272
carnivore dietary preferences and 269
chronic stress induced by predators 286-287 climate change and the timing of seasonal activities 161 population cycles 266-267, 284-287
SNV. see Sin Nombre virus
Soapberry bug (Jadera haematoloma) 141-142
Society for Conservation Biology 523, 524
Sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) 23, 491
Sodium/Sodium ions
in the elemental composition of organisms 496 functions in plants 497
nutrient requirements of plants 496-497
Soft rot 292, 293
Soil acidification 588-589
Soil pH
acid precipitation and 588-589
causes of variation in 43
impact on plant diversity 498
Soil polygons 64, 65
Soil salinity
salinization 42-43
secondary succession in salt marshes 387-389
Soil solution 497
Soil temperature
habitat mutualisms in hot spring communities 340
impact on positive interactions between plants 337
Soil water
factors affecting the amount of 95, 96 influence on decomposition of organic matter 500, 501 plant water balance and 96-97, 98
resource distribution maps 435
waterlogged soils 98
Soils
acid neutralizing capacity 588
biological soil crust 494-495, 514-515
as carbon pools 573
cation exchange capacity 498
decomposition and mineralization of litter 500-502 defined 497
dust 500, see also Dust
effects of acid precipitation on 588-589
factors affecting the development of 498-499
global nitrogen cycle and 577
global phosphorus cycle and 578, 579
global sulfur cycle and 579, 580
human landscape legacies and 555
loess soils 498, 595, 596
nitrogen saturation 589-590
parent material 498
permafrost and soil polygons 64, 65
properties of 497-498
resource distribution maps 435 succession in Glacier Bay and 387, 386 variation in oxygen concentrations 43 water content see Soil water
waterlogged 98
Solar radiation
absorption by lignin 503
atmospheric circulation cells and 26
causes of seasonality in temperature and 38-39 energy balance of animals 89
global climate change and 581
global energy balance and 25
global temperature patterns and 32
plant energy balance and 87, 89, see also Sunlight
Solidago altissima (tall goldenrod) 14, 138, 227-228
Solidago gigantea 360
Solidago sempervirens 440
Solutes, water balance and 94, 95
Song sparrow (Melospiza melodia) 188, 199, 252
Song thrush 257
Sonoran Desert 56
Sources, metapopulations and 218-219
Sousa, Wayne 389-390, 438
South America
biodiversity loss 524-525
continental drift and 410, 411, see also Amazon rainforest
South Platte River 37
Southern beeches (Nothofagus) 63
Southern foam-nest tree frog (Chiromantis xerampelina) 100
Southwestern willow flycatcher (Empidonax traillii extimus) 527
Soybean (Glycine soja) 252, 499
“Space for time substitution” concept 382, 385
Spadefoot toad (Spea multiplicata) 160-161
Spartina alterniflora 345
Spartina patens 387-389
Spatial scale
biogeography and 402-406, 407
of distribution 209
of ecological experiments 13, see also Scale
Spea multiplicata (spadefoot toad) 160-161
Spearscale (Atriplex triangularis) 112, 113
Specialists 269, 270
Speciation
defined 145
driven by ecological interactions 149, 150
mechanisms of 145-146
species diversity and a balance with extinction 146,147
Speciation reversal 152
Species
biodiversity loss and see Biodiversity loss
biogeography see Biogeography
competition and see Competition
distribution see Distribution
geographic range 210-213
habitat fragmentation and 152, 153, 557
patterns of life history 158-165
ranking for protection 540-542
using subsets to define a community 357
Species accumulation curves 361-362, 363
Species coexistence
community membership and 431
diversity of mechanisms supporting 329
intermediate disturbance hypothesis and its elaborations 437-440 lottery models and neutral models of 441-443 Menge-Sutherland model and 440-441
resource mediation and 436-437
resource partitioning and 433-435
Species composition
biogeographic variation in forest biomes 402-404
defined 362-363
interconnected spatial scales of 405 top-down control of energy flow and 480
trophic cascades and 481, see also Trophic cascades
Species distribution models 212-213
Species diversification rate 413-414
Species diversification time 413, 414-415
Species diversity
balance between speciation and extinction 146
biodiversity and 360-361
biogeographic patterns in 404
community membership 428-433
consequences of 443-445
defined 358
determinants of local species diversity 406, 407
driven by ecological interactions 149
effects of interactions between predation and dispersal on 442
effects of invasive species on 360
effects of nitrogen deposition on 591
emerging zoonotic diseases and 427-428, 445-446
in forest biomes around the world 402-404
interconnected spatial scales of 405
introduction 428
latitudinal gradients in see Latitudinal gradients in species diversity
longitudinal variation in 412
as a measure of community structure 358-361
plant diversity and prairie food web stability 489
rank abundance curves 361-362
reserve design and the Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project
421-422
resource mediation and 436-443
resource partitioning and 433-435
Shannon index 358-359
species accumulation curves 361-362, 363
taxonomic homogenization and 526-528
Species evenness 358-359
Species extinctions
balance with speciation 146
contemporary rates of species loss 525, 526
modern biodiversity loss and 521, see also Extinctions
Species interactions
categories of 267-268
community membership and 431, 433
context dependence 369-370
direct and indirect interactions 363-364
effects of climate change on 283, 284
effects of edge effects on 559
effects of mycorrhizae on 346
effects of parasites on 304-305
impact on competition 325
local species diversity and 406
of multiple species 363-372
positive interactions and the intermediate disturbance hypothesis 439-440
resource mediation and 436
species coexistence and resource partitioning 433-435
succession in mountain forests and 391
trophic or non-trophic interactions 267
variability in strength and direction 366-369, see also Competition;
Predation
Species richness
biogeographic variation in forest biomes 402-404
competitive networks and 366
defined 358
determinants of local species richness 406, 407
effects of global climate change on 583, 584
effects of nitrogen deposition on 591
equilibrium theory of island biogeography and 419-422
latitudinal gradients in 412-413, see also Latitudinal gradients in species diversity
plant species richness and human landscape legacies 554-555
resource partitioning and 433
saturation point 406
species accumulation curves 361-362, 363
species diversity and 358-359
species-area relationship 416-419
succession and 392
Species supply, community membership and 429
Species-area relationship 416-419, 525
Spectral signature, of chlorophyll 456
Sperm, gamete size and parental care 192-193
Sphagnum bogs 383, 382
Sphenophryne cornuta (horned land frog) 170
Spiders
community effects of predation by lizards 280-281
cuticle resistance to water loss 101
ecological effects of behavioral responses to predators and 199 enslaver parasites and 307-308
sexual cannibalism 192
Spike grass (Distichlis spicata) 387-389, 440
Spiller, David 280-281
Spiny chameleon (Furcifer verrucosus) 212
Spirit Lake 377, 376
Spirogyra 163
Spiroplasma 296
“Sponging” behavior by dolphins 128-129
Sponging mouthparts 123
Spongy moth (Lymantria dispar) 234, 308
Sporophytes 165
Sporozoites 295, 297
Springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) 189
Spruce stage 386, 387
S-shaped growth curves 230, 253, 254
Stability, of communities 392
Stabilizing selection 137, 138
Stable isotope analyses
description of 120
of heterotroph diets 120-121, 466
of hydrothermal vent invertebrates 469
of New Caledonian crow food sources 127
of photosynthetic pathways 120
Stachys officinalis (wood betony) 559
Stakeholders 565
“Stalked toad with many filaments” (Caulophryne polynema) 74
Standard deviation 531
Static life tables 258, 259-260
Statistical analyses 13
Steadman, David 525
Steelhead 370
Steller sea lion (Eumetopias jubatus) 479-480
Stevens, Carly 591
Stinging hairs 189
Stinging nettle (Urtica dioica) 108
Stomach 125, 126
Stomates
in CAM plants 118, Ö9 defined 87
functions of 87, 88, 112
plant water balance and 97, 98
Stomp, Maayke 318-319
Stotting behavior 188, 189
Stratification 39-40
Stratosphere 27, 592
Stratospheric ozone 592-593
Strawberry plants 206, 207
Streams/Stream communities
acid neutralizing capacity and acid precipitation 588, 589 context dependence of species interactions 370
effects of nutrients on net primary production 462
effects of parasites on community structure 305
factors affecting biological communities in 67-68 human impact on 68
nutrients and nutrient cycling 510-511
retention of pollutants 511
spatial zonation 68
Stress
acclimatization by individuals 82-84
as an agent of change 379
chronic stress and predator-prey interactions 286-287
classification of plant life histories and 174-175
Menge-Sutherland model and 440, 441
physical environment and 82-83
populations and adaptation to 84-85
relative neighbor effect 338-339
species diversity and the intermediate disturbance hypothesis 437-438
Stress-tolerant plants 174, 175
Strigops habroptilus (kakapo) 239
Strix occidentalis caurina (northern spotted owl) 220, 564
Stromatolites 148
Styela 392-393
Subalpine fir (Abies Iasiocarpa) 391
Subalpine meadows 597
Subalpine zone 66
Subarctic region 412-413
Subduction zones 409, 410
Subsidence 27
Subtropics
patterns of precipitation and temperature 50
seabird diversity in 413
Succession
agents of change 378-380
changes in net primary production through successional stages 454 defined 378
early studies of 381-383
mechanisms of 384-392
models of 384, 383
Mount St. Helens example 397, 381, 394-396
overview 381
primary and secondary 381, see also Primary succession; Secondary succession
Succulence 49, 56, 57, 119
Sucking mouthparts 123
Sudden oak death 293
Sugars, dessication tolerance and 102
Sulfate 110
Sulfur
acid precipitation and 587, 588, 589
anthropogenic emissions 579, 580
in chemosynthesis 109, 110
in the elemental composition of organisms 496
functions in plants 497
global cycle 579, 580
stable isotope analyses and 120-121
Sulfur bacteria 109, 110
Sulfur dioxide 380, 579
Sulfuric acid 579, 588
Sundra flying lemur (Galeopterus variegatus) 141
Sunflowers 150
Sunlight
albedo and vegetation's effect on regional climate 36-37 photosynthesis and 110, 111-112, 113, see also Solar radiation
Surface winds 28, 29, 30
Surface-area-to-volume ratio, ectotherms and 90-91
Surrogate species 541-542
Survival
trade-offs with current reproduction 167-168
trade-offs with reproduction 145
Survival rates
snowshoe hare population cycles and 267
survivorship curves and 256, 257
Survivorship
defined 257
human life table data 260
Lack clutch size and 166
survivorship curves and 256, 257
Survivorship curves 256, 257
Sutherland, John 392-394
Suzan, Gerardo 428, 446
Swallowing, by snakes 271
Sweat glands 101
Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) 116
Symbioses
autotrophic animals 108,109
defensive symbionts against parasites 294-295, 296
defined 267, 333
examples and range of 333-334
gut biota 126
hydrothermal vent invertebrates and chemoautotrophs 467-468 nitrogen fixation and 499, 500
symbionts of humans 290
Symplocarpus foetidus (skunk cabbage) 90
Synapsids 147
Synedra ulna 315, 316
Syngnathus typhle 194
T
T statistic 531
Taenia 290
Taenia taeniaeformis 292
Taiga 64
Tails
sexual selection and 191
tail-flagging behavior 189
Takeba, Go 115
Tall goldenrod (Solidago altissima) 14, 138, 227-228
Tallgrass prairies
changes in net primary production during ecosystem development 454 human impact on 76
impact of global climate change on 59
influence of edge effects on reproductive success in birds 559
long-term ecological research 77
Tamarisk (Tamarix) 527
Tamias 326
Tamias dorsalis 326
Tamias quadrivittatus 326
Tamiasciurus hudsonicus (red squirrel) 93
Tansley, A. G. 313, 451
Tanzanian wild dogs 197
Tapeworms 290, 292
Tapirs 562
Tappania 148
Tardigrades (water bears) 69,103
Target species 366, 367
Taricha granulosa (rough-skinned newt) 395, 271
Tarsobaenus 482-483
Tasmania
effects of disease on wild animals 534
effects of global climate change on distribution of sea urchins 213
logistic growth of sheep population 230
Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii) 534
Tasmanian wolf (Thylacinus cynocephalus) 534
Tatra Mountains 537
Taurine 308
Taxonomic homogenization 526-528
Tectonic plates 409-410, 411
TEDs. see Turtle excluder devices
Teeth
digestion of food and 125
snakes 271
Tegeticula yuccasella (yucca moth) 341-343
Teleost (bony) fishes 99-100
Temperate deciduous forests
biome distribution and characteristics 51, 59-60, 61
human impact on 51, 61
mean residence time of nutrients 506
Temperate evergreen forests
biome distribution and characteristics 51, 61-63
human impact on 51, 63
mean residence time of nutrients in coniferous forests 506
Temperate forests
allocation of net primary production to roots 453 global patterns of net primary production and 465 mean residence time of nutrients 506 principle threats to 535
Temperate grasslands
allocation of net primary production to roots 453 biome distribution and characteristics 51, 57, 58 global climate change and 59, 535
global patterns of net primary production and 465 human impact on 51
Temperate rainforests 61, 62
Temperate shrublands and woodlands
allocation of net primary production to roots 453 biome distribution and characteristics 51, 58-59, 60 human impact on 51, 59
Temperate zones
location of 28
precipitation and temperature patterns 50 seasonality and 39
Temperature
as an agent of change 379
annual seasonal temperature variation 32, 33
causes of seasonal changes 38-39
climate diagrams 52
control of physiological activity by 86
determinant of terrestrial biomes 50 distribution of C3 and C4 plants and 117 energy balance of organisms and 86-94, see also Energy balance factors affecting global temperature patterns 32-33
global climate change and 581-582, see also Global climate change impact on barnacle distribution 216
impact on decomposition of organic matter 500, 501
impact on plant photosynthesis 112-113,114
impact on terrestrial net primary production 459, 460 influence of edge effects on 559
influence of mountains on 36
lower critical temperature 92-93
maritime and continental climates 34, 35
organisms and variation in 85-86 phenotypic plasticity and 160
regulation and tolerance in ectotherms 90-92 regulation and tolerance in endotherms 92-94 relative neighbor effect at high-elevations 338-339 terrestrial biomes see Terrestrial biomes upper and lower limits for life on Earth 85, 86
Terborgh, John 413, 555
Terns 412
Terpenes 593
Terrestrial biomes
boreal forests 63-64
classification by plant growth forms 49-50
climate diagrams 52
deserts 55-57
distribution and characteristics of 51
diversity of 48-49
effects of human activities on 50-52, 51
global patterns of precipitation and temperature as determinants of 50
mountain biological zones 66-67
principle threats to 535
temperate deciduous forests 59-61
temperate evergreen forests 61-63
temperate grasslands 57, 58
temperate shrublands and woodlands 58-59, 60
tropical rainforests 52-53, 54
tropical seasonal forests and savannas 54-55
tundra 64-65
Terrestrial ecosystems
chemical constituents of the atmosphere 41-42
control of net primary production by climate 459-461
energy and biomass pyramids 476
energy flow between trophic levels 476-477
global carbon cycle 573, 574-575
global nitrogen cycle 577, 578
global patterns of net primary production 464-465
global phosphorus cycle 578, 579
global sulfur cycle 579, 580
methods of estimating net primary production 454-458
net secondary production 467
plant allocation of net primary production 452-454
trophic cascade example 482-483
Territoriality, clownfish and 177
Territories 191
Tertiary consumers 357
Tetrapods 147, 148
Thalassiothrix 74
Thalassoma lunare (moon wrasse) 176
Thamnophis sirtalis (garter snake) 271
Thaumatichthys axeli (“Prince Axel's wonder fish”) 74
Theodose, Terry 460
Theory of Island Biogeography, The (MacArthur & Wilson) 401, 419-421
Thermal conveyors 31
Thermocline 39, 40
Thermodynamics, second law of 475
Thermoneutral zone 92-93
Thermopsis montana (golden banner) 112
Thomas Chris 220, 221
Thomomys talpoides (northern pocket gopher) 396, 395
Thorn woodlands 54-55
Thorny devil (Moloch horridus) 141
Threatened species
estimating population growth in 258-259 global summary of 522
number of 522
ranking for protection 540-542
Red List of Threatened Species 521, 541
Threshold density 302-304
Thrips imaginis 250
Thuja plicata (western red cedar) 568
Thunnus thynnus (bluefin tuna) 239
Thylacine (Thylacinus cynocephalus) 534
Tibetan Plateau 32, 84
Ticks 290, 292, 557, 558
Tides 70
Tidestromia oblongfolia 114
Tiger moth (Platyprepia virginalis) 294
Tiktaalik roseae 148
Till 498
Tilman, David 314-315, 434-435, 444, 489
Toads 100
Tobacco (Nicotiana) 115, 274
Tolerance
coping with environmental change and 81
dessication tolerance 102-103
freeze tolerance 80-81, 92, 101-102
of subfreezing temperatures see Freeze tolerance
temperature regulation and tolerance in ectotherms 90-92
temperature regulation and tolerance in endotherms 92-94
Tolerance model of succession 384, 383, 387, 395
Toolmaking/Tool use
as adaptation or learned behavior 128-129
chimpanzees 106
New Caledonian crows 106-107, 126-127, 128
Top-down control
Black Sea ecosystem 240, 241
defined 240
Torpor 93-94
Tortoises 101
Townsend, Colin 481
Toxins
bioaccumulation and biomagnification of persistent organic pollutants 472
473, 489-490, 491
biological transport of pollutants 490-491
plant secondary compounds 273-275
in prey defenses 272
used by predators 271
Toxotes chatareus (archerfish) 141
Trade winds 28, 29
Trade-offs
with adaptation and acclimatization 84
adaptive evolution and 144, 145
between current and delayed reproduction 169
between current reproduction and other life history traits 167-168 in host-parasite systems 300
between number and size of offspring 165-167
Transferrin 294
Transpiration
plant energy balance and 87
plant water balance and 97-98
stomates 87, 88
vegetation's effect on regional climate and 36
Travels in Alaska (Muir) 385
Treatments
amphibian decline experiments 3-4
random assignment of 14
replication in ecological experiments 13
Tree ferns 62, 404
Tree frogs 100
Treehoppers 340-341
Trees
commensalisms in forests and 345
as ecosystem engineers 368
effects of global climate change on mortality rates 250-251
effects of tropospheric ozone on 594
as foundation species 368
number of parasite species 291
phenotypic plasticity 160
trade-offs between reproduction and growth 168
trophic cascade in a lowland tropical forest 482-483, see also Aspens
Trematodes
coevolution with host snails 299, 300
effects of snail species diversity on transmission of parasitic trematodes 446 extinction of host populations and 301, 305, 306
Ribeiroia ondatrae and amphibian decline 3-4, 5, 6, 12, 13, 17 schistosomiasis and 6
Tribolium (flour beetles) 239, 252-253, 304, 305
Tribolium castaneum 304, 305
Tribolium confusum 252-253, 304, 305
Trichoderma viride 348
Trichophyton rubrum 290, 292
Trichostrongylus tenuis 301-302
Trichosurus cunninghami (brushtail possum) 195
Trifolium pratense (red clover) 499
Trillium 337
Trirhabda bacharidis 440
Trirhabda virgata 228
Trisetum 462
Trites, Andrew 479-480
Trombidium (velvet mites) 292, 293
Trophic cascades
bottom-up or top-down control of energy flow 480
definition and description of 364-365, 480-481 examples of 481-483
factors determining the number of trophic levels 483-484
habitat fragmentation and 557
influence of organism characteristics on energy flow between trophic levels 484
wolf reintroduction in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem and 566-567
Trophic efficiency
definition and description of 477-478
influence on population dynamics 479-480
Trophic facilitations 365
Trophic interactions
bioaccumulation of persistent organic pollutants 472-473, 489-490 biological transport of pollutants 490-491
defined 267
energy flow between trophic levels 475-480 feeding relationships 474-475
food webs 358, 485-489
introduction 473
trophic cascades 480-485
types of 267, 268, see also Predation
Trophic levels
definition and description of 357, 474
energy flow between 475-480
energy flow through detritus 474-475
factors determining the number of 483-484
in food webs 357-358
influence of organism characteristics on energy flow between 484
in interaction webs 358
Trophic mutualisms 339
Trophic pyramids 476
Trophosomes 467
Trophy hunting
biodiversity loss and 533
inadvertent evolution and 132, 133-134, 151
Tropical alpine plants 67
Tropical dry forests
ecological restoration 563
effects of grasses on the occurrence of fires in 217
fire and 54
habitat fragmentation in Venezuela 555
Tropical forests
allocation of net primary production to roots 453
effects of leaf-cutter ants on nutrient supply and cycling 349 global patterns of net primary production and 465 influence of species invasions on species-area curves 418 interaction of landscape patterns with ecological processes 553 mean residence time of nutrients 505, 506
methods of estimating net primary production 455, 457 overexploitation and biodiversity loss 532
principle threats to 535, see also Lowland tropical forests
Tropical rainforests
biome distribution and characteristics 51, 52-53
ecosystem services and benefits to humans 423-424
effects of deforestation on 53, 54, 458
effects of habitat fragmentation on 400-401, 422-423 greenhouse gases and 43
human impact on 51
leaf area index and gross primary production 453
settlement lotteries 177, see also Amazon rainforest
Tropical savannas
allocation of net primary production to roots 453 fire and 54
global patterns of net primary production 465
Tropical seasonal forests
biome distribution and characteristics 51, 54-55
human impact on 51, 55
Tropical zone (tropics)
atmospheric circulation and precipitation 27
deforestation and its impact on regional climate 36-37 latitudinal gradients in species diversity and 412, 413-415 location of 27-28
metabolic rate and endotherms 92
in net primary production 465
patterns of precipitation and temperature 50
seabird diversity in 413
Troposphere 27, 48, 592
Tropospheric ozone 593-594
Tsunamis 379
Tube worms 450, 467-468
Tuberculosis 290, 292
Tubificids 269
Tubularia 392-393
Tuna 91, 239
Tundra
allocation of net primary production to roots 453
biome distribution and characteristics 51, 64, 65
effects of global climate change on net ecosystem exchange 459, 585 global patterns of net primary production 465
human impact on 51, 64-65
plant communities and nitrogen uptake 503, 504
Tunicates 392-393
Turgor pressure 95, 96, 97
Turnover
in lakes 39-40
of species 405
Turtle excluder devices (TEDs) 259
Tympanuchus cupido (greater prairie chicken) 139,140, 537
Tympanuchus cupido cupido (heath hen) 238
Type I survivorship curves 256, 257
Type II survivorship curves 256, 257
Type III survivorship curves 256, 257
Typha Iatifolia 337
Typhlodromus occidentalis 278-279
U
Ulex europaeus (gorse) 431
Ultimate causes 181-182
Ultraviolet-B (UVB) radiation 593-594
Ulva 438
Ulva lactuca 389-390
Umbrella species 541-542
Understory plants, tropical rainforests 53
Unionida 530
United Nations Environment Programme 582
Uplift 27
Upwelling
El-Nino events and 40
in oceans and coastal waters 29, 31
Upwelling zones 465, 513
Urchin barrens
effects of global climate change on geographic ranges and 213
kelp forest-urchin barren dynamics 204-205, 213, 215, 221-222, 223, 364
365
Urine, water balance in animals and 100, 101
Uroleucon ambrosiae 440
Uroleucon pieloui 440
Ursus arctos (brown bear) 216-217
Ursus arctos horribilis (grizzly bear). see Grizzly bear
Ursus maritimus (polar bear) 216-217
Ursus spelaeus (European cave bear) 466
Urtica dioica (stinging nettle) 108
U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) 231-232, 260, 427
U.S. Endangered Species Act 259, 564
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 521
U.S. National Institutes of Health 72
U.S. population
ecological footprint 262
estimating the carrying capacity for 254-255 life table data 260
survivorship curves 256, 257
Ustilago maydis (corn smut) 292
Utricularia (aquatic bladderworts) 312
UVB. see Ultraviolet-B radiation
V
Vaccination 303
Vaccinium 504
“Vampire squid from hell” (Vampyroteuthis infernalis) 74
Van Dover, Cyndy Lee 469
Vancouver, George 385
Vanderhorstia 339-340
Varley, Nathan 565
Velvet mites (Trombidium) 292
Venezuela 555
Venus flytrap 312
Vertebrates
number of imperiled species 522
tolerance for water loss 100
water balance in aquatic and terrestrial animals 99-101
Vesicomya gigas 469
Vesicomya lepta 469
Vesicomyidae 469
Vespa mandarinia (Asian giant hornet) 90
Vestimentum 467
Vibrio 290
Vibrio cholerae 293
Vicariance 410
Victoria's riflebird (Ptiloris victoriae) 190
Viola odorata 217
Viruses
coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 184, 290, 291, 293, 427
as enslaver parasites 308
hantaviruses 427, 428, 446
Lymantria dispar nucleopolyhedrovirus 308
myxoma virus and European rabbit coevolution 297-298
West Nile virus 6, 7, 140
Vitamin D 592
Volatile organic compounds
as a defense against herbivory 274
tropospheric ozone and 593, 594
Volatilization 578
Volcanoes
as agents of change 379, 380
global sulfur cycle and 579, 580
global warming and 583
Krakatau Island and the equilibrium theory of island biogeography 420-421,
see also Mount St. Helens
Voles 234
Volterra, Vito 321
Volvox 69
Vredenburg, Vance 15-16
Vulpes fulva (red fox) 152
Vulpes lagopus (Arctic fox) 281
W
Wallace, Alfred Russel
on biodiversity loss 523
biogeography and 217, 407-409
on evolutionary history and species diversity in the tropics 414
theory of evolution and 410
Wallace's line 408
Walrus (Odobenus rosmarus) 9, 146,147
Walter, Heinrich 52
Walters, Jeff 543
Wapiti 76
Warblers 126, 433-434
Warning coloration 271, 272
Wasps 198, 336, see also Parasitoid wasps
Wasser, Samuel 537-538
Water
as an agent of change 379
dessication tolerance and 102-103
freeze tolerance in amphibians and 102
importance to life 94-95
movement along energy gradients 95
pH values 43
photosynthesis and 111
seasonal stratification of oceans and lakes 39-40
Water availability
crassulacean acid metabolism and 118-119
effects of temperature on 86
influence on plant photosynthesis 112
influence on terrestrial net primary production 459-460
responses of organisms to variation in 94-101
Water balance
animals 98-101
importance to life 94-95 microorganisms 95-96 overview 95, 96 plants 96-98
Water bears (tardigrades) 69
Water clarity 512, 513
Water fleas (Daphnia) 69, 253
Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) 283
Water loss
crassulacean acid metabolism and 118-119 dessication tolerance and 102-103
resistance to and tolerance for in animals 100-101 water balance in plants and 97-98
Water potential
defined 95
water balance in microorganisms and 95-96
water balance in plants and 96, 97
Water use efficiency 117
Water vapor
acid precipitation and 588
effect on global warming 583
greenhouse effect and 25
as a greenhouse gas 581
Waterlogged soils 42, 98
Watson, H. C. 416-417
Wattled jacana (Jacana jacana) 198
Waves, as agents of change 379, 389
Weasel family 146,147
Weather
climate and 24
defined 23-24, 580
global climate change and extreme events 582
Weathering 497, 498, 499, 514
Weathers, Kathleen 553
“Weedy” plants 175
West Nile virus 6, 7, 140
Westerlies 28, 29
Western fence lizard (Sceloporus occidentalis) 166-167
Western gray kangaroos 249
Western red cedar (Thuja plicata) 568
Western toad (Anaxyrus boreas) 4-5
Wet deposition 508, 588
Wetlands
beavers as keystone species 369
community effects of herbivory on 282-283
effects of soil temperature on positive interactions between plants 337 studies of succession in 383, 382
Whales
dispersal and migration 217, 218
forensics in conservation biology and 537
impact of human harvesting of 480, see also Killer whale
Wheat 298-299
Wheat rusts 298-299
Whelks 487, 487
Whiptail lizards 206
Whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) 568, 569
White-crowned sparrow (Zonotrichia Ieucophrys) 184
Whitefish 152
White-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus) 557, 558
White-throated woodrat (Neotoma albigula) 307
Wild ginger (Asarum canadense) 249, 250
Wilhelma Zoo 355, 373
Willows 566-567, 568
Wilson, Edward O. 173, 401, 419-421
Wilson, Gail 346
Wilson, Scott 314-315
Wilting 96
Winds
as agents of change 379
mountain-influenced precipitation patterns and 34-35 prevailing wind patterns 28, 29, 30
surface winds and ocean currents 29, 31-32
Winterberry (Ilex verticillata) 563
Wiwaxia corrugata 148
Wolf (Canis lupus)
impact on foraging behavior of elk 187
reintroduction in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem 547-548, 565-567 seasonal change in fur thickness 93
Wood betony (Stachys officinalis) 559
Wood crickets 289
Wood frog (Lithobates sylvaticus; Rana sylvatica)
deformities and amphibian decline 4-5, 6
freeze tolerance 80, 81, 102
Wood pigeons 195, 196
Wood-eating cockroach (Cryptocerus punctulatus) 336
Woodlands. see Temperate shrublands and woodlands
Woodpecker finches 128
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution 450
Woody vines 53
Woolly bear caterpillars 294
World Meteorological Organization 582
Wrack 388, 387
Wuchereria 290
Xanthopan morgani 123
Xanthophylls 504
Xenopus 100
Xenopus laevis (African clawed frog) 3
Xylem 97
Y
Yellow dung flies 290
Yellow-bellied marmot (Marmota flaviventris) 94
Yellow-legged frog (Rana muscosa) 15-16
Yellow-rumped warbler (Setophaga coronata) 434
Yellowstone National Park
boundaries of 548
grain and extent in landscape studies 552 influence of forest fires on landscape patterns 554 landscape composition and landscape structure 551-552 population growth of grizzly bears 238, 239
projected effects of climate change on 568-569 wolf reintroduction 547-548, 565-567
Yersinia pestis 290, 293
Yucca filmentosa 341-343
Yucca moth (Tegeticula yuccasella) 341-343
Yucca plant-yucca moth mutualism 341-343
Z
Zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) 430, 530
Zinc 496, 497
Zones of upwelling 465, 513
Zonotrichia leucophrys (white-crowned sparrow) 184
Zoonotic diseases 427-428, 445-446
Zooplankton
effects of global climate change on community composition 584-585
effects of interactions between predation and dispersal on species diversity 442
invasive Mnemiopsis comb jellies and the Black Sea ecosystem 226, 227, 230-231, 240
lakes 69
pelagic ocean zone 73, 74
population fluctuations 230-231
top-down control in the Black Sea ecosystem and 240, 241 upwelling zones 29
Zostera (eelgrass) 463
Zust, Tobias 275, 276
More on the topic Index:
- Index
- INDEX
- Index
- Dashboard of Indicators and Composite Indices
- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
- Notation and Preliminaries for Multidimensional Poverty Measurement
- Agrawal M.. Textbook of Pediatrics. 3rd ed. — CBS Publishers,2025. — 973 p., 2025
- Adhikari S.. Diagnosketch: A Visual Guide to Medical Diagnosis for the Non-Medical Audience Oxford: Oxford University Press,2022. — 665 p., 2022
- Bell Michael. City of the Good: Nature, Religion, and the Ancient Search for What is Right. Princeton University Press,2018. — 360 p., 2018
- AAP. Guidelines for Air and Ground Transport of Neonatal and Pediatric Patients. 4th edition. — American Academy of Pediatrics,2015. — 488 p., 2015