Bowman W., Hacker S.. Ecology. 6th ed. — Oxford University Press,2023. — 744 p.. 2023
Ecology is at the heart of understanding our world—it serves as the glue that brings together information from a multitude of different scientific disciplines, and it integrates this information in a way that informs us about how nature works. As our environment continues to change because of fossil fuel burning, agriculture, resource extraction, and pollution, it becomes increasingly critical that we understand the repercussions of these changes through an ecological perspective. Stewardship of ecosystem goods and services that humanity requires—food, clean air, clean water, and many others—is important to understand through the lens of ecological knowledge. Our goal with this book is to present that ecological knowledge in the best way possible to promote ecological literacy in students with diverse backgrounds and career goals.
Reviewers
William D. Bowman University of Colorado
Sally D. Hacker Oregon State University
Digital Resources for Ecology, Sixth Edition
William D. Bowman University of Colorado
Sally D. Hacker Oregon State University
1 The Web of Life
William D. Bowman University of Colorado
Sally D. Hacker Oregon State University
Connections in Nature
CONCEPT 1.1 Events in the natural world are interconnected. Learning Objective
What Is Ecology?
CONCEPT 1.2 Ecology is the scientific study of interactions between organisms and their environment.
Answering Ecological Questions
CONCEPT 1.3 Ecologists evaluate competing hypotheses about natural systems with observations, experiments, and models.
Experiments are designed and analyzed in consistent ways
When ecologists perform experiments, they often take the three additional steps described in ECOLOGICAL TOOLKIT 1.1: they replicate each treatment, they assign treatments at random, and they analyze the results using statistical methods.
UNIT 1 ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT
William D. Bowman University of Colorado
Sally D. Hacker Oregon State Universit
2 The Physical Environment
Climate
CONCEPT 2.1 Climate is the most fundamental component of the physical environment.
Global Climate Patterns
CONCEPT 2.3 Large-scale atmospheric and oceanic circulation patterns establish global patterns of temperature and precipitation.
Regional Climate Influences
CONCEPT 2.4 Regional climates reflect the influence of oceans and continents, mountains, and vegetation.
Climate Variation over Time
CONCEPT 2.5 Seasonal and decadal climate variation are associated with changes in Earth's position relative to the sun and the strength of atmospheric pressure cells.
The Chemical Environment
CONCEPT 2.6 Salinity, acidity, and oxygen concentrations are major determinants of the chemical environment.
3 The Biosphere
Terrestrial Biomes
CONCEPT 3.1 Terrestrial biomes are characterized by the growth forms of the dominant vegetation.
Freshwater Biological Zones
CONCEPT 3.2 Biological zones in freshwater ecosystems are associated with the velocity, depth, temperature, clarity, and chemistry of the water.
Marine Biological Zones
CONCEPT 3.3 Marine biological zones are determined by ocean depth, light availability, and the stability of the bottom substrate.
4 Coping with Environmental Variation: Temperature and Water
Responses to Environmental Variation
CONCEPT 4.1 Each species has a range of environmental tolerances that determines its potential geographic distribution.
Variation in Temperature
CONCEPT 4.2 The temperature of an organism is determined by exchanges of energy with the external environment.
Variation in Water Availability
CONCEPT 4.3 The water balance of an organism is determined by exchanges of water and solutes with the external environment.
5 Coping with Environmental Variation: Energy
Sources of Energy
CONCEPT 5.1 Organisms obtain energy from sunlight, from inorganic chemical compounds, or through the consumption of organic compounds.
Autotrophy
CONCEPT 5.2 Radiant and chemical energy captured by autotrophs is converted into stored energy in carbon-carbon bonds.
Photosynthetic Pathways
CONCEPT 5.3 Environmental constraints have resulted in the evolution of biochemical pathways that improve the efficiency of photosynthesis.
Heterotrophy
CONCEPT 5.4 Heterotrophs have adaptations for acquiring and assimilating energy efficiently from a variety of organic sources.
UNIT 2 EVOLUTIONARY ECOLOGY
6 Evolution and Ecology
What Is Evolution?
CONCEPT 6.1 Evolution can be viewed as genetic change over time or as a process of descent with modification.
Mechanisms of Evolution
CONCEPT 6.2 Natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow can cause allele frequencies in a population to change over time.
Adaptive Evolution
CONCEPT 6.3 Natural selection is the mechanism for adaptive evolution.
The Evolutionary History of Life
CONCEPT 6.4 Long-term patterns of evolution are shaped by large- scale processes such as speciation, mass extinction, and adaptive radiation.
Joint Effects of Ecology and Evolution
CONCEPT 6.5 Ecological interactions and evolution exert a profound influence on one another.
7 Life History
Life History Diversity
CONCEPT 7.1 Life history patterns vary within and among species.
Trade-Offs
CONCEPT 7.2 There are trade-offs between life history traits.
Life Cycle Evolution
CONCEPT 7.3 Organisms face different selection pressures at different life cycle stages.
Life History Continua
CONCEPT 7.4 Life history patterns can be classified along several continua.
8 Behavioral Ecology
An Evolutionary Approach to Behavior
CONCEPT 8.1 Evolution is the basis for adaptive behavior.
Foraging Behavior
CONCEPT 8.2 Animals make behavioral choices that enhance their energy gain and reduce their risk of becoming prey.
Mating Behavior
CONCEPT 8.3 Mating behaviors reflect the costs and benefits of parental investment and mate defense.
Living in Groups
CONCEPT 8.4 There are advantages and disadvantages to living in groups.
UNIT 3 POPULATIONS
9 Population Distribution and Abundance
Populations and Individuals
CONCEPT 9.1 Populations are groups of individuals of the same species that vary in size over space and time.
Distribution and Abundance Patterns
CONCEPT 9.2 Species vary in their distribution and abundance across their geographic range.
Processes Important to Distribution and Abundance
CONCEPT 9.3 Species are limited in their distribution and abundance by habitat suitability, historical factors, and dispersal.
Metapopulations
CONCEPT 9.4 In metapopulations, sets of spatially isolated populations are linked by dispersal.
10 Population Dynamics
Patterns of Population Growth
CONCEPT 10.1 Populations are dynamic entities that vary in size over time.
Population Extinction
CONCEPT 10.2 The risk of extinction increases in populations that fluctuate in size and/or are small.
11 Population Growth and Regulation
Geometric and Exponential Growth
CONCEPT 11.1 Populations can grow exponentially when conditions are favorable, but exponential growth cannot continue indefinitely.
Effects of Density
CONCEPT 11.2 Population size is determined by a combination of density-dependent and density-independent factors.
Logistic Growth
CONCEPT 11.3 The logistic equation incorporates limits to growth and shows how a population may stabilize at a maximum size, the carrying capacity.
Life Tables
CONCEPT 11.4 Life tables show how survival and reproduction vary with age or size structure, influencing population growth and size.
UNIT 4 SPECIES INTERACTIONS
12 Predation
Carnivore and Herbivore Dietary Preferences
CONCEPT 12.1 Most carnivores have broad diets, whereas a majority of herbivores have relatively narrow diets.
Mechanisms Important to Predation
CONCEPT 12.2 Predation results in a wide range of capture and avoidance mechanisms.
Predator-Prey Population Cycles
CONCEPT 12.3 Predator populations can cycle with their prey populations.
Effects of Predation on Communities
CONCEPT 12.4 Predation can affect prey distribution and abundance, in some cases causing a shift from one community type to another.
13 Parasitism
Parasite Natural History
CONCEPT 13.1 Parasites typically feed on only one or a few host species, but host species have multiple parasite species.
Defense and Counterdefenses
CONCEPT 13.2 Hosts have mechanisms for defending themselves against parasites, and parasites have mechanisms for overcoming host defenses.
Parasite-Host Coevolution
CONCEPT 13.3 Host and parasite populations can evolve together, each in response to selection pressure imposed by the other.
Host-Parasite Population Dynamics
CONCEPT 13.4 Hosts and parasites can have important effects on each other's population dynamics.
Parasites Can Change Ecological Communities
CONCEPT 13.5 Parasites can alter the outcomes of species interactions, thereby causing communities to change.
14 Competition
General Features of Competition
CONCEPT 14.1 Competition can be direct or indirect, vary in its intensity, and occur between similar or dissimilar species.
Competitive Coexistence
CONCEPT 14.2 Competing species are more likely to coexist when they use resources in different ways.
The Lotka-Volterra Competition Model
CONCEPT 14.3 Competitive interactions can be modeled using the logistic equation.
Altering the Outcome of Competition
CONCEPT 14.4 The outcome of competition can be altered by predation, the physical environment, and disturbance.
15 Mutualism and Commensalism
Positive Interactions
CONCEPT 15.1 In positive interactions, no species is harmed, and the benefits are greater than the costs for at least one species.
Characteristics of Mutualism
CONCEPT 15.2 Each partner in a mutualistic interaction acts in ways that serve its own ecological and evolutionary interests.
Ecological Consequences of Positive Interactions
CONCEPT 15.3 Positive interactions affect the abundances and distributions of populations as well as the structure of ecological communities.
UNIT 5 COMMUNITIES
16 The Nature of Communities
What Are Communities?
CONCEPT 16.1 Communities are groups of interacting species that occur together at the same place and time.
Community Structure
CONCEPT 16.2 Species diversity and species composition are important descriptors of community structure.
Interactions of Multiple Species
CONCEPT 16.3 Communities can be characterized by complex networks of direct and indirect interactions that vary in strength and direction.
17 Change in Communities
Agents of Change
CONCEPT 17.1 Agents of change act on communities across all temporal and spatial scales.
The Basics of Succession
CONCEPT 17.2 Succession is the process of change in species composition over time as a result of abiotic and biotic agents of change.
Mechanisms of Succession
CONCEPT 17.3 Experimental work on succession shows its mechanisms to be diverse and context dependent.
18 Biogeography
Biogeography and Spatial Scale
CONCEPT 18.1 Patterns of species diversity and distribution vary at global, regional, and local spatial scales.
Global Biogeography
CONCEPT 18.2 Global patterns of species diversity and composition are influenced by geographic area and isolation, evolutionary history, and global climate.
Regional Biogeography
CONCEPT 18.3 Regional differences in species diversity are influenced by area and distance, which determine the balance between immigration and extinction rates.
19 Species Diversity in Communities
Community Membership
CONCEPT 19.1 Species diversity differs among communities as a consequence of regional species pools, abiotic conditions, and species interactions.
Resource Partitioning
CONCEPT 19.2 Resource partitioning is theorized to reduce competition and increase species diversity.
Resource Mediation and Species Diversity
CONCEPT 19.3 Processes such as disturbance, stress, predation, and positive interactions can mediate resource availability, thus promoting species diversity.
The Consequences of Diversity
CONCEPT 19.4 Many experiments show that species diversity affects community function.
UNIT 6 ECOSYSTEMS
20 Production
Primary Production
CONCEPT 20.1 Energy in ecosystems originates with primary production by autotrophs.
Environmental Controls on NPP
CONCEPT 20.2 Net primary production is constrained by both physical and biotic environmental factors.
Global Patterns of NPP
CONCEPT 20.3 Global patterns of net primary production reflect climate constraints and biome types.
Secondary Production
CONCEPT 20.4 Secondary production is generated through the consumption of organic matter by heterotrophs.
21 Energy Flow and Food Webs
Feeding Relationships
CONCEPT 21.1 Trophic levels describe the feeding positions of groups of organisms in ecosystems.
Energy Flow between Trophic Levels
CONCEPT 21.2 The amount of energy transferred from one trophic level to the next depends on food quality and on consumer abundance and physiology.
Trophic Cascades
CONCEPT 21.3 Changes in the abundances of organisms at one trophic level can influence energy flow at multiple trophic levels.
Food Webs
CONCEPT 21.4 Food webs are conceptual models of the trophic interactions of organisms in an ecosystem.
22 Nutrient Supply and Cycling
Nutrient Requirements and Sources
CONCEPT 22.1 Nutrients enter ecosystems through the chemical breakdown of minerals in rocks or through fixation of atmospheric gases.
Nutrient Transformations
CONCEPT 22.2 Chemical and biological transformations in ecosystems alter the chemical form and supply of nutrients.
Nutrient Cycles and Losses
CONCEPT 22.3 Nutrients cycle repeatedly through the components of ecosystems.
Nutrients in Aquatic Ecosystems
CONCEPT 22.4 Freshwater and marine nutrient cycles occur in a moving medium and are linked to terrestrial ecosystems.
UNIT 7 Appliedand large-scale ecology
23 Conservation Biology
Conservation Biology
CONCEPT 23.1 Conservation biology is an integrative discipline that applies the principles of ecology to the protection of biodiversity.
Declining Biodiversity
CONCEPT 23.2 Biodiversity is declining globally.
Threats to Diversity
CONCEPT 23.3 Primary threats to diversity include habitat loss, invasive species, overexploitation, pollution, disease, and climate change.
Approaches to Conservation
CONCEPT 23.4 Conservation biologists use many tools and work at multiple scales to manage declining populations.
Ranking Species for Protection
CONCEPT 23.5 Prioritizing species helps maximize the biodiversity that can be protected with limited resources.
24 Landscape Ecology and Ecosystem Management
Landscape Ecology
CONCEPT 24.1 Landscape ecology examines spatial patterns and their relationship to ecological processes.
Habitat Loss and Fragmentation
CONCEPT 24.2 Habitat loss and fragmentation decrease habitat area, isolate populations, and alter conditions at habitat edges.
Designing Nature Reserves
CONCEPT 24.3 Biodiversity can best be sustained by large reserves connected across the landscape and buffered from areas of intense human use.
25 Global Ecology
Global Biogeochemical Cycles
CONCEPT 25.1 Elements move among geologic, atmospheric, oceanic, and biological pools at a global scale.
Global Climate Change
CONCEPT 25.2 Earth is warming because of anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases.
Acid and Nitrogen Deposition
CONCEPT 25.3 Anthropogenic emissions of sulfur and nitrogen cause acid deposition, alter soil chemistry, and affect the health of ecosystems.
Atmospheric Ozone
CONCEPT 25.4 Losses of ozone in the stratosphere and increases in ozone in the troposphere both pose risks to organisms.
ANSWERS Ecology
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
Chapter 10
Chapter 11
Chapter 12
Chapter 13
Chapter 14
Chapter 15
Chapter 16
Chapter 17
Chapter 18
Chapter 19
Chapter 20
Chapter 21
Chapter 22
Chapter 23
Chapter 24
Chapter 25
Books and textbooks on the discipline General ecology:
- Abrams Peter A.. Competition Theory in Ecology. Oxford University Press,2022. — 336 p. - 2022 ãîä
- Carter Ian. Rhythms of Nature: Wildlife and Wild Places Between the Moors. Pelagic Publishing,2022. — 216 p. - 2022 ãîä
- A course of lectures on ecology and life safety basics: Textbook / M.A. Bobrenko, A.M. Balzhanova. - Kostanay: KSPU,2018. - 139 p. - 2018 ãîä
- Ahluwalia V. (ed.). Malhotra S. (ed.) Environmental Science. CRC Press,2007. — 368p. - 2007 ãîä
- Beder S.. Environmental Principles and Policies: An Interdisciplinary Approach. UNSW Press,2006. – 312 p. - 2006 ãîä
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