List of Illustrations

About the Cover

1 The Web of Life

Figure 1.1 Deformed Leopard Frog

Figure 1.2 Amphibians in Decline

Figure 1.3 The Life Cycle of Ribeiroia

Figure 1.4 Parasites Can Cause Amphibian Deformities

Figure 1.5 Do the Effects of Ribeiroia and Pesticides Interact in Nature?

Figure 1.6 Pesticides May Weaken Tadpole Immune Systems

Figure 1.7 Rapid Spread of a Deadly Disease

Figure 1.8 An Ecological Hierarchy

Figure 1.9 A Few of Earth's Many Communities

Figure 1.10 Natural Selection in Action

Figure 1.11 How Ecosystems Work

Figure 1.12 Ecological Experiments

Figure A Carson and Root's Field Experiment

Figure B Carson and Root's Results

Figure 1.13 Complex Causation of Amphibian Deformities and Declines

UNIT 1 Organisms and Their Environment

2 The Physical Environment

Figure 2.1 A Seasonal Opportunity

Figure 2.2 Changes in Salmon Harvests over Time

Figure 2.3 Widespread Mortality in Pinon Pines

Figure 2.4 Earth's Energy Balance

Figure 2.5 Increasing Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide

Figure 2.6 Latitudinal Differences in Solar Radiation at Earth's Surface

Figure 2.7 Surface Heating and Uplift

Figure 2.8 Tropical Heating and Atmospheric Circulation Cells

Figure 2.9 Global Atmospheric Circulation Cells and Climate Zones

Figure 2.10 The Coriolis Effect on Global Wind Patterns

Figure 2.11 Prevailing Wind Patterns

Figure 2.12 Upwelling of Coastal Waters

Figure 2.13 The Great Ocean Conveyor Belt

Figure 2.14 Global Average Annual Temperatures

Figure 2.15 Annual Seasonal Temperature Variation

Figure 2.16 Average Annual Terrestrial Precipitation

Figure 2.17 Average Monthly Temperatures in a Continental and a Maritime Climate

Figure 2.18 The Rain Shadow Effect

Satellite Image of the South Platte River Drainage Basin, Colorado

Figure 2.19 The Effects of Deforestation Illustrate the Influence of Vegetation on Climate

Figure 2.20 The Tilt of Earth's Axis Causes Seasonal Changes

Figure 2.21 Wet and Dry Seasons and the ITCZ

Figure 2.22 Lake Stratification

Figure 2.23 El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

Figure 2.24 Global Variation in Salinity at the Ocean Surface

Figure 2.25 Salinization

Figure 2.26 Effect of the PDO on Salmon Catch in the Northwest United States

3 The Biosphere

Figure 3.1 The Serengeti Plain of Africa

Figure 3.2 Pleistocene Animals of the Great Plains

Figure 3.3 Plant Growth Forms

Figure 3.4 Biomes Vary with Average Annual Precipitation and Temperature

Figure 3.5 Global Biome Distributions Are Affected by Human Activities

A Sample Climate Diagram

Figure 3.6 Tropical Deforestation

Figure 3.7 Convergence in the Forms of Desert Plants

Figure 3.8 Temperate Rainforest

Figure 3.9 Fire in the Boreal Forest

Figure 3.10 Soil Polygons and Pingo

Figure 3.11 Mountain Biological Zones

Figure 3.12 Tropical Alpine Plants

Figure 3.13 Stream Orders

Figure 3.14 Spatial Zonation of a Stream

Figure 3.15 Examples of Lake Plankton

Figure 3.16 Marine Biological Zones

Figure 3.17 Estuaries Are Junctions between Rivers and Oceans

Figure 3.18 Salt Marshes Are Characterized by Salt-Tolerant Vascular Plants

Figure 3.19 Salt-Tolerant Evergreen Trees and Shrubs Form Estuarine Mangrove Forests

Figure 3.20 The Rocky Intertidal Zone: Stable Substrate, Changing Conditions

Figure 3.21 Burrowing Clams

Figure 3.22 A Coral Reef

Figure 3.23 Coral Reefs Can Be Seen from Outer Space

Figure 3.24 A Kelp Bed

Figure 3.25 Plankton of the Pelagic Zone

Figure 3.26 A Denizen of the Deep Pelagic Zone

Figure 3.27 Human Impacts on the Oceans

Figure 3.28 Buffalo Hunting

Figure 3.29 Long-Term Ecological Research Sites

Figure 3.30 Research at the Konza Prairie LTER Site

4 Coping with Environmental Variation: Temperature and Water

Figure 4.1 A Frozen Frog

Figure 4.2 Northern Exposure

Figure 4.3 Abundance Varies across Environmental Gradients

Figure 4.4 Climate and Aspen Distribution

Figure 4.5 Environmental Control of Physiological Processes

Figure 4.6 Organismal Responses to Stress

Figure 4.7 Temperature Ranges for Life on Earth

Figure 4.8 Energy Exchange in Terrestrial Plants

Figure 4.9 Stomates Control Leaf Temperature by Controlling Transpiration

Figure 4.10 Sunlight, Seasonal Changes, and Leaf Pubescence

Figure 4.11 A Leaf Boundary Layer

Figure 4.12 A Woolly Plant of the Himalayas

Figure 4.13 Internal Heat Generation as a Defense

Figure 4.14 Internal Heat Generation by Tuna

Figure 4.15 Mobile Animals Can Use Behavior to Adjust Body Temperature

Figure 4.16 Metabolic Rates in Endotherms Vary with Environmental Temperatures

Figure 4.17 Long-Term Torpor in Marmots

Figure 4.18 What Determines the Water Content of Soil?

Figure 4.19 Turgor Pressure in Plant Cells

Figure 4.20 The Daily Cycle of Dehydration and Rehydration

Figure 4.21 How Plants Cope with Depletion of Soil Water

Figure 4.22 Allocation of Growth to Roots versus Shoots Is Associated with Precipitation Levels

Figure 4.23 Gains and Losses of Water and Solutes in Aquatic and Terrestrial Animals Exemplified by Different Life Stages of a Dragonfly

Figure 4.24 Water and Salt Balance in Marine and Freshwater Teleost Fishes

Figure 4.25 Resistance to Water Loss Varies among Frogs and Toads

Figure 4.26 Water Balance in the Kangaroo Rat

Figure 4.27 Desiccation-Tolerant Organisms

5 Coping with Environmental Variation: Energy

Figure 5.1 Nonhuman Tool Use

Figure 5.2 Tools Manufactured by New Caledonian Crows

Figure 5.3 Plant Parasites

Figure 5.4 Green Sea Slug

Figure 5.5 Sulfur Deposits from Chemosynthetic Bacteria

Figure 5.6 Absorption Spectra of Plant Photosynthetic Pigments

Figure 5.7 Plant Responses to Variations in Light Levels

Figure 5.8 Effects of Light Level on Leaf Structure

Figure 5.9 Photosynthetic Responses to Temperature

Figure 5.10 Influence of Oxygen Concentration on Photosynthesis

Figure 5.11 Does Photorespiration Protect Plants from Damage by Intense Light?

Figure 5.12 Plants with the C₄ Photosynthetic Pathway

Figure 5.13 Morphological Specialization in the Leaves of C₄ Plants

Figure 5.14 C₄ Plant Abundance and Growing-Season Temperatures

Figure 5.15 C₃, C₄, and CAM Photosynthesis Compared

Figure 5.16 Crassulacean Acid Metabolism

Figure 5.17 Examples of Plants with the CAM Photosynthetic Pathway

Carbon Isotopic Composition of Plants with Different Photosynthetic Pathways

Figure 5.18 Categorical Breakdown of Food Chemistry

Figure 5.19 An Environmental Disaster

Figure 5.20 Variations on a Theme: Insect Mouthparts

Figure 5.21 Variations on a Theme: Bird Bills

Figure 5.22 Crossbill Morphology, Food Preference, and Survival Rates

Figure 5.23 Herbivores Have Long Digestive Systems

Figure 5.24 Adjustment of Digestion Efficiency with a Changing Diet

Figure 5.25 Diet Selection and Energy Gain by New Caledonian Crows

Figure 5.26 Untutored Tool Use in Captive Crows

Figure 5.27 Dolphin Nose Gear in Shark Bay, Australia

UNIT 2 Evolutionary Ecology

6 Evolution and Ecology

Figure 6.1 Fighting over the Right to Mate

Figure 6.2 Trophy Hunting Decreases Ram Body and Horn Size

Figure 6.3 Descent with Modification

Figure 6.4 Natural Selection Can Result in Differences between Populations

Figure 6.5 Individuals in Populations Differ in Their Phenotypes

Figure 6.6 Three Types of Natural Selection

Figure 6.7 Genetic Drift Causes Allele Frequencies to Fluctuate at Random

Figure 6.8 Harmful Effects of Genetic Drift

Figure 6.9 Gene Flow: Introducing Alleles for Insecticide

Resistance

Figure 6.10 Some Striking Adaptations

Figure 6.11 Adaptive Evolution in Soapberry Bugs

Figure 6.12 Rapid Adaptive Evolution in Anole Lizards

Figure 6.13 Rapid Adaptive Evolution on a Continental Scale

Figure 6.14 Trade-Off between Reproduction and Survival

Figure 6.15 Speciation by Genetic Divergence

Figure 6.16 Reproductive Barriers Can Be a By-Product of Selection

Figure 6.17 An Evolutionary Tree of the Pinnipeds

Figure 6.18 Life Has Changed Greatly over Time

Figure 6.19 The “Big Five” Mass Extinctions

Figure 6.20 A Chain of Speciation Events Driven by Ecological Interactions?

Figure 6.21 A Hybrid That Lives in a New Environment

Figure 6.22 Rapid Feedback Effects Can Occur between Ecological and Evolutionary Factors

Figure 6.23 Feedback of Food Plant Evolution on Insect Abundance

Figure 6.24 Hunting Resulted in the Decline of Silver Foxes

Figure 6.25 Evolutionary Effects of Habitat Fragmentation on a Hypothetical Species

7 Life History

Figure 7.1 Offspring Vary Greatly in Size and Number

Figure 7.2 Life in a Sea Anemone

Figure 7.3 Life History Strategy

Figure 7.4 Plasticity of Growth Form in Ponderosa Pines

Figure 7.5 Phenotypic Plasticity in Spadefoot Toad Tadpoles

Figure 7.6 Camouflage Mismatch in Snowshoe Hares

Figure 7.7 Life Cycle of a Coral

Figure 7.8 Isogamy and Anisogamy

Figure 7.9 The Cost of Sex

Figure 7.10 Benefits of Sex in a Challenging Environment

Figure 7.11 The Pervasiveness of Complex Life Cycles

Figure 7.12 Clutch Size and Survival

Figure 7.13 Seed Size-Seed Number Trade-Offs in Plants

Figure 7.14 Egg Size-Egg Number Trade-Off in Fence

Lizards

Figure 7.15 Trade-Offs between Reproduction and Survival

Figure 7.16 A Reproduction versus Growth Trade-Off

Figure 7.17 Parental Investment

Figure 7.18 Developmental Mode and Species Longevity

Figure 7.19 Specialized Defensive Structures in Marine

Invertebrate Larvae

Figure 7.20 Paedomorphosis in Salamanders

Figure 7.21Agave: A Semelparous Plant?

Figure 7.23 A Dimensionless Life History Analysis

Figure 7.24 Sequential Hermaphroditism

Figure 7.25 Clownfish Size Hierarchies

8 Behavioral Ecology

Figure 8.1 Killing the Cub

Figure 8.2 Females That Fight to Mate with Choosy Males

Figure 8.3 An Adaptive Behavioral Response

Figure 8.4 Distinctive Mouse Burrows

Figure 8.5 The Genetics of Escape Tunnel Construction

Figure 8.6 Conceptual Model of Optimal Foraging

Figure 8.7 Effect of Profitability on Food Selection

Figure 8.8 Effect of Travel Time between Patches

Figure 8.9 Foraging in Adelie Penguins

Figure 8.10 Movement Responses of Male and Female Elk

Figure 8.11 Young Receive Less Food When Parents Fear

Predators

Figure 8.12 Examples of Antipredator Behaviors

Figure 8.13 A Male Shows Off

Figure 8.14 A Male Courtship Dance

Figure 8.15 Males with Long Tails Get the Most Mates

Figure 8.16 The ultimate gift for copulation

Figure 8.17 Skin Color Brightness Indicates Blood Parasites

Figure 8.18 Ecological Factors Can Affect the Potential for Polygyny

Figure 8.19 A Formidable Defense

Figure 8.20 Safety in Numbers

Figure 8.21 Traveling in a Group

Figure 8.22 Should a New Arrival Join the Group?

Figure 8.23 Fruit Flies Medicate Their Offspring

Figure 8.24 Costs of Fear

UNIT 3 Populations

9 Population Distribution and Abundance

Figure 9.1 Kelp Forests Depend on Sea Urchin Population Control

Figure 9.2 Do Sea Urchins Limit the Distribution of Kelp Forests?

Figure 9.3 Aspen Groves: One Tree or Many?

Figure 9.4 Plants and Animals That Form Clones

Figure A An Underwater Ouadrat

Figure B Counting Trees from a Line Transect

Figure C Release of Marked Butterfly

Figure 9.5 Many Populations Have a Patchy Distribution

Figure 9.6 Abundance Varies throughout the Geographic Range of a Species

Figure 9.7 Fragmentation of Dorset Heathlands

Figure 9.8 Predicted Distributions of Madagascar Chameleons

Figure 9.9 A Climate-Driven Range Extension

Figure 9.10 The Distributions of Two Drought-Tolerant Plants

Figure 9.11 Food Resources Affect Habitat Suitability

Figure 9.12 Herbivores Can Limit Plant Distributions

Figure 9.13 Joint Effects of Temperature and Competition on Barnacle Distribution

Figure 9.14 Migration of North Pacific Humpback Whales

Figure 9.15 The Metapopulation Concept

Figure 9.16 The Northern Spotted Owl

Figure 9.17 Colonization in a Butterfly Metapopulation

Figure 9.18 The Effect of Otters on Urchins and Kelp

Figure 9.19 Killer Whale Predation on Otters May Have Led to Kelp Declines

10 Population Dynamics

Figure 10.1 A Potent Invader

Figure 10.2 Changes in the Black Sea Ecosystem

Figure 10.3 Populations Are Dynamic

Figure 10.4 Colonizing the New World

Figure 10.5 Logistic Growth Rises First, Then Levels Off

Figure 10.6 Population Fluctuations

Figure 10.7 Populations Can Explode in Numbers

Figure 10.8 Consequences of an Insect Outbreak

Figure 10.9 From Rain to Plants to Mice

Figure 10.10 A Population Cycle

Figure 10.11 Fluctuations Can Drive Small Populations

Extinct

Figure 10.12 Extinction in Small Populations

Figure 10.13 Extinction Vortex

Figure 10.14 A Plague of Flies

Figure 10.15 Allee Effects Can Threaten Small Populations

Figure 10.16 Environmental Stochasticity and Population Size

Figure 10.17 Invader versus Invader

Figure 10.18 Ecosystem Changes in the Black Sea

11 Population Growth and Regulation

Figure 11.1 Amazon on Fire

Figure 11.2 Explosive Growth of the Human Population

Figure 11.3 Dash to the Sea

Figure 11.4 Geometric and Exponential Growth

Figure 11.5 How Population Growth Rates Affect Population Size

Figure 11.6 Some Populations Have Low Growth Rates

Figure 11.7 Comparing Density Independence and Density Dependence

Figure 11.8 Weather Can Influence Population Size

Figure 11.9 Rising Tree Mortality Rates

Figure 11.10 Will Elephants Become Extinct in the Wild?

Figure 11.11 Examples of Density Dependence in Natural Populations

Figure 11.12 Population Growth Rates May Decline at High Densities

Figure 11.13 An S-Shaped Growth Curve in a Natural Population

Figure 11.14 Comparison of Logistic and Exponential Growth

Figure 11.15 Fitting a Logistic Curve to the U.S.

Figure 11.16 Age Structure Influences Growth Rate in Human Populations

Figure 11.17 Three Types of Survivorship Curves

Figure 11.18 Survivorship Varies among Human Populations

Figure A Management Practices and Sea Turtle Population Growth Rates

Figure B Turtle Excluder Device (TED)

Figure 11.19 Faster than Exponential

Figure 11.20 World Population Growth Rates Are Dropping

Figure 11.21 United Nations Projections of Human Population Size

UNIT 4 Species Interactions

12 Predation

Figure 12.1 Predator and Prey

Figure 12.2 Hare Population Cycles and Reproductive Rates

Figure 12.3 Types of Two Species Interactions

Figure 12.4 Are Parasitoids Carnivores or Parasites?

Figure 12.5 The Nitrogen Contents of Plants and Animals Differ

Figure 12.6 A Predator That Switches to the Most Abundant Prey

Figure 12.7 Most Agromyzid Flies Have Narrow Diets

Figure 12.8 How Snakes Swallow Prey Larger Than Their Heads

Figure 12.9 Adaptations to Escape Being Eaten

Figure 12.10 A Trade-Off in Snail Defenses against Crab Predation?

Figure 12.11 Compensating for Herbivory

Figure 12.12 Plant Defense and Herbivore Counter-defense

Figure 12.13 Does Herbivory Cause Evolution in Plant Populations?

Figure 12.14 The Lotka-Volterra Predator-Prey Model Produces Population Cycles

Figure 12.15 In a Simple Environment, Predators Drive Prey to Extinction

Figure 12.16 Predator-Prey Cycles in a Complex Environment

Figure 12.17 A Beetle Controls a Noxious Rangeland Weed

Figure 12.18 Lizard Predators Can Drive Their Spider Prey to

Extinction

Figure 12.19 Snow Geese Can Benefit or Decimate Marshes

Figure 12.20 The Geographic Spread of an Aquatic Herbivore

Figure 12.21 A Snail Herbivore Alters Aquatic Communities

Figure 12.22 Climate Change Alters Species Interactions

Figure 12.23 Both Predators and Food Influence Hare Density

Figure 12.24 A Vegetation-Hare-Predator Model Predicts

Hare Densities Accurately

Figure 12.25 The Stress Response

13 Parasitism

Figure 13.1 Driven to Suicide

Figure 13.2 Enslaved by a Fungus

Figure 13.3 The Human Body as Habitat for Symbionts

Figure 13.4 Many Species Are Host to More Than One

Parasite Species

Figure 13.5 Ectoparasites

Figure 13.6 Endoparasites

Figure 13.7 Nonspecific Plant Defenses

Figure 13.8 Protected by a Symbiont

Figure 13.9 Life Cycle of the Malaria Parasite

Figure 13.10 Coevolution of the European Rabbit and the

Myxoma Virus

Figure 13.11 Adaptation by Parasites to Local Host Populations

Figure 13.12 Parasites Infect Common Host Genotypes More Easily Than Rare Genotypes

Figure 13.13 Parasites Can Reduce Host Reproduction

Figure 13.14 Parasites Can Reduce Their Host's Geographic Range

Figure 13.15 Parasite Removal Reduces Host Population Fluctuations

Figure 13.16 Vaccination Reduces the Incidence of Measles in Humans

Figure 13.17 Determining Threshold Population Densities for Disease Control

Figure 13.18 Parasites Can Alter the Outcome of Competition

Figure 13.19 Parasites Can Alter the Physical Environment

Figure 13.20 Climate Change May Increase the Risk of Leishmaniasis in North America

Figure 13.21 Parasites Can Alter Host Behavior

Figure 13.22 A Parasite Gene That Enslaves Its Host

14 Competition

Figure 14.1 A Plant That Eats Animals

Figure 14.2 Competition Decreases Growth in a Carnivorous Plant

Figure 14.3 The Concept of the Fundamental and the Realized Niche

Figure 14.4 Interference Competition in Plants

Figure 14.5 Resource Availability Affects the Intensity of Competition

Figure 14.6 Competition Is Often Asymmetrical

Figure 14.7 A Continuum of Competitive Effects

Figure 14.8 Ants and Rodents Compete for Seeds

Figure 14.9 Competition in Paramecium

Figure 14.10 Do Cyanobacteria Partition Their Use of Light?

Figure 14.11 Character Displacement

Figure 14.12 Competition Shapes Beak Size

Figure 14.13 Graphical Analyses of Competition

Figure 14.14 Outcome of Competition in the Lotka-Volterra Competition Model

Figure 14.15 Herbivores Can Alter the Outcome of Competition

Figure 14.16 Squeezed Out by Competition

Figure 14.17 A Natural Experiment on Competition between Chipmunk Species

Figure 14.18 Implications of Climate Warming to

Competition of Invasive Species

Figure 14.19 Population Decline in an Inferior Competitor Lacking Disturbance

Figure 14.20 Coexistence in a Nutrient-Poor Environment

Figure 15.1 Collecting Food for Their Fungi

Figure 15.2 The Fungal Garden of a Leaf-Cutter Ant

Figure 15.3 Mycorrhizal Associations Cover Earth's Land Surface

Figure 15.4 Two Major Types of Mycorrhizae

Figure 15.5 A Protist Gut Mutualist

Figure 15.6 Fig Flowers and the Wasp That Pollinates Them

Figure 15.7 Deer Can Move Plant Seeds Long Distances

Figure 15.8 From Benefactor to Competitor

Figure 15.9 Neighbors Increase Plant Growth at High- Elevation Sites

Figure 15.10 Neighbors Ameliorate Cold Temperatures in

Alpine Plants

Figure 15.11 A Seeing-Eye Fish

Figure 15.12 A Facultative Mutualism

Figure 15.13 Rewarding Those Who Reward You

Figure 15.14 Yuccas and Yucca Moths

Figure 15.15 A Penalty for Cheating

Figure 15.16 A Symbiont Increases the Fertility of Its Host

Figure 15.17 An Ant-Plant Mutualism

Figure 15.18 Ecological Effects of the Cleaner Fish Labroides dimidiatus

Figure 15.19 Plant-Pollinator Extinctions Predicted Under

Climate Warming

Figure 15.20 Mycorrhizal Fungal Species Richness Affects Ecosystem Properties

Figure 15.21 A Specialized Parasite Stimulates Weeding by Ants

Figure 15.22 Nitrogen Fixation in Fungal Gardens

UNIT 5 Communities

16 The Nature of Communities

Figure 16.1 Invading Seaweed

Figure 16.2 Spread of Caulerpa in the Mediterranean Sea

Figure 16.3 Defining Communities

Figure 16.4 Subsets of Species in Communities

Figure 16.5 Food Webs and Interaction Webs

Figure 16.6 Species Richness and Species Evenness

Figure 16.7 Biodiversity Considers Multiple Spatial Scales

Figure 16.8 Are Species Common or Rare?

Figure 16.9 When Are All the Species Sampled?

Figure 16.10 Communities Differ in Their Species Accumulation Curves

Figure 16.11 Direct and Indirect Species Interactions

Figure 16.12 Indirect Effects in Interaction Webs

Figure 16.13 Results of Trophic Facilitation in a New England Salt Marsh

Figure 16.14 Competitive Networks versus Competitive Hierarchies

Figure 16.15 Competitive Networks in Coral Reef Communities

How Much Does Predation by Sea Stars Matter? It Depends

Figure 16.16 Foundation versus Keystone Species

Figure 16.17 Trees Are Foundation and Ecosystem

Engineering Species

Figure 16.18 Beavers Are Keystone Species and Ecosystem Engineers

Figure 16.19 Context Dependence in River Food Webs

Figure 16.20 Food Webs in an Acidic and Warming World

Figure 16.21 A Mediterranean Seagrass Meadow

17 Change in Communities

Figure 17.1 Once a Peaceful Mountain

Figure 17.2 A Transformed Mount St. Helens

Figure 17.3 Change Happens

Figure 17.4 The Spectrum of Disturbance

Figure 17.5 The Trajectory of Succession

Figure 17.6 Space for Time Substitution

Figure 17.7 Elton's Context-Dependent View of Succession

Figure 17.8 Three Models of Succession

Figure 17.9 Glacial Retreat in Glacier Bay, Alaska

Figure 17.10 Successional Communities at Glacier Bay, Alaska

Figure 17.11 Soil Properties Change with Succession

Figure 17.12 Both Positive and Negative Effects Influence Succession

Figure 17.13 Wrack Creates Bare Patches in Salt Marshes

Figure 17.14 New England Salt Marsh Succession Is Context Dependent

Figure 17.15 Algal Succession on Southern California

Boulders Is Driven by Inhibition

Figure 17.16 Algal Succession on the Oregon Coast Is Driven by Facilitation

Figure 17.17 Fouling Communities Show Alternative States

Figure 17.18 A Model of Alternative Stable States

Figure 17.19 Rapid Amphibian Colonization

Figure 17.20 Pocket Gophers to the Rescue

Figure 17.21 Dwarf Lupines and Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria

18 Biogeography

Figure 18.1 Diversity Abounds in the Amazon

Figure 18.2 Studying Habitat Fragmentation in Tropical Rainforests

Figure 18.3 Forests around the World

Figure 18.4 Forests of the North and South Islands, New Zealand

Figure 18.5 Interconnected Spatial Scales of Species Diversity

Figure 18.6 What Determines Local Species Richness?

Figure 18.7 Marine Invertebrate Communities May Be

Limited by Regional Processes

Figure 18.8 Alfred Russel Wallace and His Collections

Figure 18.9 Six Biogeographic Regions

Figure 18.10 Mechanisms of Continental Drift

Figure 18.11 The Positions of Continents and Oceans Have

Changed over Geologic Time

Figure 18.12 Studies of Latitude and Species Diversity

Confirm Conventional Wisdom

Figure 18.13 Seabirds Defy Conventional Wisdom

Figure 18.14 Hypotheses Proposed to Explain the Latitudinal

Gradient in Species Richness

Figure 18.15 Do Land Area and Temperature Influence

Species Diversity?

Figure 18.16 The Tropics Are a Cradle and a Museum for

Speciation

Figure 18.17 Latitudinal Species Diversity Gradients Vary with Climate

Figure 18.18 The Species-Area Relationship

Species-Area Relationships of Island versus Mainland Areas

Figure 18.19 Species-Area Curves for Islands and Island-Like Habitats

Figure 18.20 Area and Isolation Influence Species Richness on Islands

Figure 18.21 The Equilibrium Theory of Island Biogeography

Figure 18.22 The Krakatau Test

Figure 18.23 The Mangrove Experiment

Figure 18.24 Tropical Rainforests on the Edge

19 Species Diversity in Communities

Figure 19.1 Deer Mice Trigger Hantavirus Infection in Humans

Figure 19.2 Disease Transmission Increased with Species Diversity Loss

Figure 19.3 A View from Above

Figure 19.4 Community Membership: A Series of Filters

Figure 19.5 Humans Are Vectors for Invasive Species

Figure 19.6 Stopping Gorse Invasion?

Figure 19.7 The Five Consequences of Climate Change for Species Invasions

Figure 19.8 Resource Partitioning

Figure 19.9 Resource Partitioning by Warblers

Figure 19.10 Bird Species Diversity Is Higher in More Complex Habitats

Figure 19.11 Resource Distribution Maps

Figure 19.12 The Outcome of Competition under Constant and Variable Conditions

Figure 19.13 Paradox of the Plankton

Figure 19.14 The Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis

Figure 19.15 A Test of the Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis

Figure 19.16 The Dynamic Equilibrium Model

Figure 19.17 Positive Interactions and Species Diversity

Figure 19.18 Positive Interactions: Key to Diversity in Salt Marsh Communities?

Figure 19.19 The Menge-Sutherland Model

Figure 19.20 A Test of the Lottery Model

Figure 19.21 Species Diversity and Community Function

Figure 19.22 Hypotheses on Species Richness and Community Function

UNIT 6 Ecosystems

20 Production

Figure 20.1 Black Smoker Vent

Figure 20.2 Life around a Hydrothermal Vent

Figure 20.3 Energy Flow in a Lake

Figure 20.4 Diminishing Returns for Added Leaf Layers

Figure 20.5 Allocation of NPP to Roots

Figure 20.6 A Tool for Viewing Belowground Dynamic

Figure 20.7 Remote Sensing of NPP

Figure A Spectral Signatures of Vegetation, Clear Water, and

Bare Soil

Figure B Remote Sensing by Satellite

Figure 20.8 Components of Net Ecosystem Exchange (NEE)

Figure 20.9 Eddy Covariance Estimates of NEE

Figure 20.10 Global Patterns of Terrestrial NPP Are Correlated with Climate

Figure 20.11 The Sensitivity of NPP to Changes in

Precipitation Varies among Grassland Ecosystems

Figure 20.12 Nutrient Availability Influences NPP in Alpine Communities

Figure 20.13 Growth Responses of Alpine Plants to Added Nitrogen

Figure 20.14 Limnocorrals

Figure 20.15 Response of a Lake to Phosphorus Fertilization

Figure 20.16 Effect of Iron Fertilization on Marine NPP

Figure 20.17 Latitudinal Variation in NPP

Figure 20.18 Isotopic Composition and Diet

Figure 20.19 Riftia Anatomy

Figure 20.20 Succession in Hydrothermal Vent Communities

Figure 20.21 Coevolution of Vent Clams and Their Symbiotic Bacteria

21 Energy Flow and Food Webs

Figure 21.1 Subsistence Hunting

Figure 21.3 Trophic Levels in a Desert Ecosystem

Figure 21.4 Ecosystem Energy Flow through Detritus

Figure 21.5 Trophic Pyramid Schemes

Figure 21.6 Consumption of Autotroph Biomass Is Correlated with NPP

Figure 21.7 Energy Flow and Trophic Efficiency

Figure 21.8 Steller Sea Lion Population Decline in Alaska

Figure 21.9 Bottom-Up and Top-Down Control of NPP

Figure 21.10 An Aquatic Trophic Cascade

Figure 21.11 A Terrestrial Trophic Cascade

Figure 21.12 Effects of a Trophic Cascade on Production

Figure 21.13 Changes in the Number of Trophic Levels

Figure 21.14 Ecosystem Size Is Correlated with the Number of Trophic Levels

Figure 21.15 Desert Food Webs

Figure 21.16 Food Webs Can Be Complex

Figure 21.17 An Intertidal Food Web

Figure 21.18 Plant Diversity and Stability in Food Webs

Figure 21.19 Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification

Figure 21.20 Biological Pumping of Pollutants

22 Nutrient Supply and Cycling

Figure 22.1 Biological Soil Crust on the Colorado Plateau

Figure 22.3 Species Richness Increases with Decreasing Soil Acidity

Figure 22.4 Development of Soil Horizons

Figure 22.5 Legumes Form Nitrogen-Fixing Nodules

Figure 22.6 Decomposition

Figure 22.7 Climate Controls the Activity of Decomposers

Figure 22.8 Lignin Decreases the Rate of Decomposition

Figure 22.9 Community Dominance and Nitrogen Uptake

Figure 22.10 Nutrient Cycles

Figure 22.11 Nitrogen Cycle for an Alpine Ecosystem, Niwot

Ridge, Colorado

Figure 22.12 Catchments Are Common Units of Ecosystem Study

Figure 22.13 Biogeochemistry of a Catchment

Figure A Measuring Water Flow

Figure B Measuring Deposition

Figure 22.14 Nutrient Limitation of Primary Production

Changes with Ecosystem Development

Figure 22.15 Rivers Are Important Modifiers of Nitrogen Exports

Figure 22.16 Nutrient Spiraling in Stream and River Ecosystems

Figure 22.17 Lake Sediments and Depth

Figure 22.18 Lake Washington: Reversal of Fortune

Figure 22.19 Zones of Upwelling Enhance Nutrient Supply for Marine Ecosystems

Figure 22.20 Loss of Biocrusts Results in Smaller Nutrient Supplies

Figure 22.21 Scourge of the Intermountain West

UNIT 7 Applied and Large-Scale Ecology

23 Conservation Biology

Figure 23.1 The Red-Cockaded Woodpecker: An Endangered Species

Figure 23.2 Decline of the Longleaf Pine Savanna Community

Figure 23.3 The Passenger Pigeon: From Great Abundance to Extinction

Figure 23.4 Loss of Forest Cover in Western Ecuador

Figure 23.5 Humans Have Been Causing Extinctions for Millennia

Figure 23.6 Loss of Bird Pollinators Reduces Reproductive Success in a New Zealand Shrub

Figure 23.7 Species Introductions Are Increasing Globally

Figure 23.8 Introductions of Non-Native Species Can Increase Regional Biodiversity

Figure 23.9 U.S.

Figure 23.10 Threats to Mammal Species

Figure 23.11 Invasive Species Can Alter the Nitrogen Cycle

Figure 23.12 The Collapse of the Cod Fishery

Figure 23.13 Overharvesting Has Led to a Decline in the Sizes of Top Marine Predators

Figure 23.14 Persistent Organic Pollutants That Disrupt the Endocrine System Are a Growing Threat to Marine Mammals

Figure 23.15 Different Biomes Face Different Principal Threats

Figure 23.16 Genetic Rescue of the Florida Panther

Figure A Ivory from the 2002 Seizure in Singapore

Figure B Identifying Individual Elephants

Figure C Tracking Contraband Ivory

Figure 23.17 Ex Situ Conservation Efforts Can Rescue Species from the Brink of Extinction

Figure 23.18 Seven Forms of Rarity

Figure 23.19 Hot Spots of Imperilment

Figure 23.20 A Flagship Species

Figure 23.21 Installation of Artificial Nest Cavities Has Allowed Populations of Red-Cockaded Woodpeckers to Increase

Figure 23.22 Prescribed Burning Is a Vital Management Tool in Some Ecosystems

24 Landscape Ecology and Ecosystem Management

Figure 24.2 The Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem

Figure A GIS Integrates Spatial Data from Multiple Sources

Figure B A Conservation Gap

Figure 24.3 Landscape Heterogeneity

Figure 24.4 Movements across the Landscape

Figure 24.5 Landscape Composition and Structure

Figure 24.6 Effects of Grain and Extent

Figure 24.7 The Bog Fritillary Butterfly

Figure 24.8 Disturbances Can Shape Landscape Patterns

Figure 24.9 Landscape Legacies

Figure 24.10 The Islands of Lago Guri

Figure 24.11 Effects of Habitat Fragmentation by Lago Guri

Figure 24.12 Loss and Fragmentation of U.S. Old-Growth Forests

Figure 24.13 The Process of Habitat Loss and Fragmentation

Figure 24.14 Habitat Fragmentation Can Have Consequences for Human Health

Figure 24.15 Edge Effects

Figure 24.16 Designing Masoala National Park

Figure 24.17 Guiding Principles for Designing Nature

Reserves

Figure 24.18 A Habitat Corridor

Figure 24.20 Dramatic Effects of an Ecological Restoration Project

Figure 24.21 Adaptive Management Is a Vital Component of Ecosystem Management

Figure 24.22 Humans Are an Integral Part of Ecosystem Management

Figure 24.23 A Trophic Cascade Hypothesis

Figure 24.24 Projected Effects of Climate Change in the Northern Rockies

Figure 24.25 Warm Winters Have Promoted a Devastating Insect Outbreak

25 Global Ecology

Figure 25.1 A Massive Dust Storm

Figure 25.2 Drought in the Southern Plains

Figure 25.3 The Global Carbon Cycle

Figure 25.4 A FACE Experiment

Figure 25.5 Rates of Calcification of Corals on Australia's Great Barrier Reef, 1900-2005

Figure A Measured Trend in Ocean pH for Two Stations in the Atlantic Ocean and One in the Pacific Ocean

Figure B Influence of Ocean pH on the Density and Species Richness of Foraminiferans near Natural CO₂ Seeps

Figure 25.6 Changes in Atmospheric CO₂ Concentrations over Time

Figure 25.7 The Global Nitrogen Cycle

Figure 25.8 Changes in Anthropogenic Fluxes in the Global Nitrogen Cycle

Figure 25.9 The Global Phosphorus Cycle

Figure 25.10 The Global Sulfur Cycle

Figure 25.11 Changes in Global Temperature and Precipitation

Figure 25.12 Atmospheric Concentrations of Greenhouse

Gases

Figure 25.13 Contributors to Global Temperature Change

Figure 25.14 Plants Are Moving Up the Alps

Figure 25.15 Changes in Terrestrial NPP

Figure 25.16 Past Changes in Plant Communities

Figure 25.17 Air Quality Monitoring in the Sierra National Forest

Figure 25.18 Air Pollution Has Damaged European Forests

Figure 25.19 Decreases in Acid Precipitation

Figure 25.20 Historical and Projected Changes in Nitrogen Deposition

Figure 25.21 Effects of Nitrogen Saturation

Figure 25.22 Nitrogen Deposition Lowers Species Diversity

Figure 25.23 The Antarctic Ozone Hole

Figure 25.24 Progress against the Ozone Killers

Figure 25.26 Distribution of Loess Soils

Figure 25.27 Dusty Snow in the Rockies

List of Tables

1 The Web of Life

Table 1.1 Key Terms for Studying Connections in Nature

UNIT 1 Organisms and Their Environment

2 The Physical Environment

Table 2.1 Summary of Climate Effects of the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO)

3 The Biosphere

Ellsworth, Kansas, 38^o43' N, 98^o14' W, 466 m elevation

4 Coping with Environmental Variation: Temperature and Water

Table 4.1 Ranges of Tolerances for Water Loss in Selected Animal Groups

Table 4.2 Ranges of Resistance of External Coverings (Skin, Cuticle) to Water Loss

5 Coping with Environmental Variation: Energy

Table 5.1 Inorganic Substrates Used by Chemosynthetic Bacteria as Electron Donors for Carbon Fixation

UNIT 2 Evolutionary Ecology

8 Behavioral Ecology

Table 8.1 Examples of the Reproductive Potential of Males and Females

Table 8.2 Mating Systems

UNIT 3 Populations

9 Population Distribution and Abundance

Table A

Table B

11 Population Growth and Regulation

Table 11.2 Survivorship, Fecundity, and Years of Life Remaining by Age for U.S.

UNIT 4 Species Interactions

13 Parasitism

Table 13.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Living in or on a Host

UNIT 5 Communities

17 Change in Communities

Table 17.1 Examples of Abiotic and Biotic Agents of Stress, Disturbance, and Change in Communities

Table 17.2 Surviving Organisms Found on Mount St. Helens within a Few Years after the Eruption

18 Biogeography

Table 18.1 Tree Species Richness in Different Forests around the World

UNIT 6 Ecosystems

20 Production

Table 20.1 Variation in NPP among Terrestrial Biomes and

Oceanic Provinces

21 Energy Flow and Food Webs

Table 21.1 Production Efficiencies of Consumers

Table 21.2 Proportion of Steller Sea Lion Scats and Stomachs

Containing Five Prey Categories

22 Nutrient Supply and Cycling

Table 22.1 Elemental Composition of Organisms (as

Percentage of Dry Mass)

Table 22.2 Plant Nutrients and Their Principal Functions

Table 22.3 Mean Residence Times of Soil Organic Matter and

Nutrients in Forest and Shrubland Ecosystems

UNIT 7 Applied and Large-Scale Ecology

23 Conservation Biology

Table 23.1 Global Summary of the Number of Documented

Imperiled Species