Index

abode of Islam see dar al-Islam

Abu Hanifa see al-Nu'man, Abu Hanifa

'ada see custom agency derived from the Prophet 376—7 al-Ahkam al-Sultaniyya (Mawardi) 366—7 ahl al-athar (School of the Texts) 52—9 ahl al-rai (Rational School) 54—8, 60 Allah (God): divine sovereignty and temporal sovereignty in relation 416; lutf 375—6, 377; rights of (see huquq Allah); supreme Legislator 233; truth see haqq; kashf waqi' Anglo-Muhammadan Law 31, 294 apostates (execution of), modernity and

177, 178-9 appellate system 190-1, 193 Aquinas, Thomas 100 argument see ikhtilaaf armed conflict see jihad assisted reproduction, ethics of 119 authority see hujjiyya; judicial authority; wilaya;

wilayat al-faqah autopsy, ethics of 117 al-Awza'i, Abu 'Amr 'Abd al-Rahman 148-9 al-Baghdadi, Ibrahim ibn Khalid 152 beginning of human life, ethics of 118 bioethics: assisted reproduction 119; autopsy

117; beginning and end of human life

118; definition 112; emergence 112; five juristic views as to medical treatment 115; interdisciplinary field of 112; Islamic and Western conceptualisations 115—16; Islamic juristic discourses 113—15; and Islamic law 113, 120; issues in Islamic bioethics 116—19; law and 112; organ donation or transplantation 117; pregnancy 118; religion and 112 body covering, regulations on 343 borrowed law see legal transplant British common law see common law (British) Byzantine legal system 279

caliphate: abolition of 293, 305, 402; application of Islamic law 301; Baghdadi caliphate 360;

‘caliphate of man' as ‘theo-democracy’ 411; as constitutional government 418—19; continued obligatoriness of 403; early caliphate era 361—2; imperial caliphate era 362—4; jihad and 309; legal conceptions of 202; in modern Islamic constitutional theory 403—5, 409; Muslim unity within 305; Muwahhidun caliphate 152; re-establishment of 309; Sunni caliphate legal discourse 365—8; treatise on 411; universal Caliphate 412 canons of law see qawa'idfiqhiyya Christianity: Byzantine legal system 279; Divine

Command Theory 99; medieval Catholic view of God’s rights 74; see also natural law classical Islamic legal system, colonial

displacement of 30—2

codification: association with modernity 389; ‘codification of Islamic law’, notion of 393; concept of 389—92; Islamic law as result of 393; jurists’ law in pre-modern era 392; and legal transplant 389, 394—7; and localization of Islamic law 395—7; and marginalization of Islamic law 397; mukhtasars (legal treatises) 393; Ottoman Majalla (Mecelle) 292, 393; state-led 392

colonialism: Anglo-Muhammadan Law in India 294; displacement of classical Islamic legal system 30 (see also transplanted law); hybrid legal institutions 31; Nigerian ‘native courts’ 163

combat see jihad common law (British) 31, 294 ‘Common Morality Theory’ 100, 103-6 community of Islam see umma Companions of the Prophet 56, 141, 172, 179, 210, 257, 288, 306, 358, 434 comparative law approach to qawa 'id

fiqhiyya 242-3 compendia of laws see mukhtasars conflict of laws see ikhtilaf conquered territories, policy towards 361 constitutional law: agency and accountability

of public officials 422-4; caliphate as constitutional government 418—19; constitutionalism, definition of 400; democracy and Islam in relation 415; divine sovereignty and temporal sovereignty in relation 416; failure of democratic movements in Arab world 415; governance among equals in Sunni thought 418—19; historical development of Islamic constitutional theory 401—2; human-made legislation, scope and authority of 405; Islamic democratic theory 410—12; and Islamic law 400; Islamic law and the state 419—22; ‘Islamic state', definition as 406—9; Islamic theory of democratic self-governance 415; Islamist theory 406—9; main features of Islamic constitutional theory 403—5; objective of Islamic constitutional theory 375; separation of powers 400; sovereignty and rule of law in relation 400; standard (Sunni) Islamic doctrine 409—10; Sunni political theory 416—18; Sunni theory in modern Muslim-majority states 424—5; see also caliphate

contracts, ikhtilaf and rescinding contractual commitments 189

crime and punishment: and huquq Allah 75; punishment for theft 133—8 culture see legal culture custom ('uf; ‘ada): of classical Islamic legal system 30-2; early centres of Islamic law 1 homicide see qadhf homosexuality 326

hujjiyya (authority): of custom 293; of hadith 128; of imams (wilaya); Prophetic 54, 165, 263, 358, 375, 378, 408; of Qur’an 127; taqlid and 259, 261-5; see also judicial authority hukm (governance) see state humanity: five elements of human existence 196; human welfare as purpose of law 229; individual rights and huquq al-ibad distinguished 69; original state see natural law; rights of believers see huquq al-ibad; see also bioethics

huquq al-ibdd (rights of believers): ‘absolute’ character 76; class of 69; definition 69; government action and 76; gradations 69; and huquq Allah 29—30, 69, 71, 75, 77; ' ibadat and 70; ‘individual rights’ distinguished 69; murder and 72; scope 71

huquq Allah (rights of God): ‘absolute’ character 73, 76; class of 69; concept 74; crime and punishment and 75; and huquq al-‘ibad 29—30, 69, 71, 75, 77; individual’s service to Allah 73; kaffdrdt and 70; medieval Catholic theology contrasted 74; murder and 72; public order and 69; societal dimension 74; and state power 72

hybrid legal institutions 31

ibad dad t (ritual branch of law): and gender equality 347; and huquq Allah 70; mu‘amalat distinguished 347; wujub and 86—90

Ibn Rushd 215-16

‘ilm (knowledge): five levels of 376; of imams 376; sources of religious knowledge 289 ijma‘ (juridical consensus): concept of 19;

conditions for 174; consensus canons 223-4; definition of 171; (ir)reversibility of 175-6; legacy of 180; need for 171; operation of 174-5; and popular consensus 173-4; scope of 171; Shi ‘ i scholarship and 176-7; as Sunni matter 176-7; in theoretical jurisprudence 181; theories of 171; utility of 181 ijtihdd (interpretation): academic perspectives on 256, 258; and autonomous western reason 255-6; defunctness of 261; imams and 377; as independent reasoning 257, 264, 265; ‘literalist’ hermenuetics 138; mujtahids 259, 263; reason and 264; scope of 260; taqlad 256, 258, 261, 263 ikhtilaf (juristic disagreements): abrogation of earlier arguments 188; causes of 210-12, 216-17; certainty, possibility of in modern age 188; conflict of laws within same legal school 186; equal and conflicting arguments, problem of 183; fallibilist (formalist) approach 214, 215, 217; functions of 213-14; historical sources 210, 217; Jafari (Shi ' i) legal school 187-8, 192; juristic disagreement and legal plu ralism distinguished 209; legal pluralism 208-18; medieval Sunni jurisprudence 183-6, 192; modern appellate system 190-1, 193; modern Egyptian civil law 189, 190-1; modern Islamic law 189-90, 192-3; pragmatic approach 214, 216, 217; prohibition of usury 190; and superior argument (theory of) 188;

tarjih (preponderance) approach 215; temporal conflict of laws 188-9; validity of 212-13 imams: agency derived from the Prophet

376-7; binding and mandatory rulings 377; conformity of rullings with kashf waqi ‘ 377; as Hakim 384-6; ‘lim (knowledge) 376; and ijtihad 377; ‘isma (infallibility) 376; juristic interpretations of rule of 379-82; jurist’s expanded authority in absence of 382; and Muslim minorities in the West 314; and politics 377; Shi’i Imamate 375; wilaya (authority) 377

India: Anglo-Muhammadan Law 31, 294; Ghaznavid dynasty 371; Mughal Empire 368, 369

infallibility see ‘ isma

inheritance see marriage, family and succession interpretation see ijmaa ; ikhtilaa f; judicial authority; jurisdiction and conflict of laws; madhhabs; maqasid al-Shari‘ ah; qawa‘id fiqhiyya; sources of Islamic law; Western law Iran: ikhtilaa f and prohibition of usury 190;

Imamate 375; muftis 166; Safavid Empire, state and politics 368-9; type of Islamic law 12; wilayat al-faqih 382; see also imams; Shi’i concept of the state

Iraq, post-occupation return of sovereignty 374-5

Islamic Awakening 315

Islamic law: as academic discipline 2; approaches to 1-9; canons see canons of law; classical 30-2; definition 11, 32; existence of 11, 13-14; history see history; modernity 177-80, 188; and natu ral law see natural law; nature of 14-17; pre-Islamic law see pre-Islamic law; profane domain 26-8; ‘proprietor’-oriented view 74; purposes 14-17, 196-9; sacred domain 26-8; schools see madhhabs; sources see hadith; Qur’an; type of law 11-12, 32-4; and Western legal systems in Muslim countries 11; see also Shari ah

isma (infallibility) 376 Isma ili legal school 23 Israelite prophetic governance 359 istihsan (equitable juristic discretion): ‘ada and 232; qawa‘id fiqhiyya 56-8

Ja‘ fari legal school: foundation of 148; ijma ‘ 176, 177; ikhtilaaf 187-8, 192; Ja far al-Sadiq, life and career 23, 148; superior argument 187-8, 189, 192

jihad (effort to fulfil God’s will) 301-11; and application of Islamic law 301; armed conflict as 301; caliphate and 309; collective jihad 301; conquered territories, policy towards 361; continued debate on 311; doctrine of 301; five rules of combat 436; individual jihad 301; Islamic understanding of 301; and jurisdiction of Islamic law 308-10; justification for 302-5, 310; modern context of 311; objective of 301; peaceful methods 301; in Qur’an 301; regulations on use of force 311; rules of 310; sovereignty and 308—10; territorial divisions of the world 305—7, 310; terrorist misuse of 311; and UN Charter 311; violent methods 301; see also terrorism

jizya (poll tax on non-Muslims) 370—1 judicial authority 156—68 jurisdiction, jihad and 308—10 jurisdictional disagreements see ikhtilaf jurisprudence see fiqh juristic disagreements see ikhtilaf justice: equality and 349—50; haqq and 67; and natural law 60—3; social construction of 340 al-Juwayni, Abu al-Ma'ali 17, 20, 103, 104, 172-3

kaffarat (expiation), and huquq Allah 70

kalam (doctrine), and Divine Command Theory 101-3

kashf waqi‘ (intented truth of Divine laws) 377 khawarij see terrorism

Khomeini, Sayyid Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini, Ayatullah 382-6

khuntha (‘third gender') 326

knowledge see ' ilm

al-Kufi, Sufyan ibn Sa'id al-Thawri 149-50 al-kulliyat al-khamsa (five universal principles) (22, 107

law making and natural law 58-60 al-Layth, Abu al-Harith 150 legal canons see qawa' id fiqhiyya legal culture: colonialism and 30-2; pre-Islamic regional legal culture 276, 281

legal pluralism: in Islamic law see ikhtilaa f; pre- Islamic law 281

legal transplant adoption (‘recycling') of pre-Islamic law 275, 281; codification and 389, 394-7

legal treatises see mukhtasars legitimate lineage see nasab ‘literalist' hermenuetics 138 localization of Islamic law 395-7

madhabs (legal schools): beginnings of Islamic legal discourse 141; codification of legal opinions 141; origins and founders of 141-52; see also ahl al-athar; ahl al-rai

Majalla (Ottoman) law of custom 292, 393 al-Majd, Abu, constitutional theory 409-10 Malik ibn Anas 20, 22, 141, 142, 143, 144-6, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 210, 211, 264, 327, 328; see also Maliki legal school

Maliki legal school: and ahl al-ra'i school 56; al-Ahkam al-Sultaniyya 366, 367, 368; bioethics 114, 115; constitutionalism 419, 422, 423; custom 26, 293; dar al-Islam 305; five principles of 145; foundation of 22, 144-6, 364; huquq Allah 75; ijma' 172, 177, 179; ijtihaad 258; istihsaa n 288; legal pluralism 20, 215; Malik ibn Anas, life and career 144-6; marriage 325, 327, 328, 420; marriage dissolution 331, 332, 333; maslaha 59; nasab 330; natural law 57; Nigerian ‘native courts' 163; purposes of law 197, 198; sources of Islamic law 26, 51; taqlad 258; terrorism 428, 430, 431, 432

maqaasid al-Shari ah (purposes of Shari ah): ability to discern 195; bioethics and 107, 113; definition of 199, 201-2; doctrine of 107; as ethical values 229; expanded scope of 201-2, 203; five objectives 22; historical sources 197-9; legal discourse on 195; maslaha 196-9, 203; modern period 199-203; narrow scope of 203; principles of application 195; as public policy 204; qawa'idfiqhiyya distinguished 229; qawa' id 197-9; ‘system-approach' to 202-3; theological discourse on 195; varieties of interpretation 203-4

marginalization of Islamic law by codification projects 397

marriage, family and succession: adoption of Western legal categories 324; divorce waiting period ( idda) 332; dower and maintenance (mahr/nafaqa) 329-30; dower redemption (khul ) 333; feminism and 335; fiqh 325; future of family law 335; gender 325-6; gender equality 335, 342; husband's rights 335; ikhtilaa f 325; legitimate lineage (nasab) 330-1; marriage (nikaah) 326-7; marriage as money relation 335; marriage contract (' aqd) 327-8; marriage dissolution 331; marriage guardian (wall al-nikah) 328; marriage impediments (mawaani ) 329; marriage repudiation (talaaq) 331-2; marriage rights (huquaq) 329; marriage to male apostate, repudiation of 191; modernity and inheritance 178, 180; modernity and mixed marriages 178, 179-80; paternity canon (al-walad li-l-firaash) 226, 230; patriarchal type of law 335; pre-Islamic legal practices 324; Qur'an 324; separation by court (khiyar fi al-nikah) 333-4; sexual relations 325-6, 335; succession 334-5; traditional Islamic legal categorisation 324; undelivered gifts of heritable property, validity of 191; variety of regulations and rulings 325 ma ruaf see custom maslaha (well-being) 59, 196-9, 203 al-Mawardi, Abu al-Hasan 'Ali 366-7 Mawdudi, Abu al-A la, theory of Islamic State 406-9, 410-11

medicine see bioethics

modernity and Islamic law 177-80, 188 modesty and body covering, regulations on 343

Moosa, Ebrahim 13

morality and natural law 99

mu‘amalat (social relational branch of law): and gender equality 347; ' ibadat distinguished 347; wujub and 86—90

muftis (jurists): historical development 158, 164—8; historical sources 157; issuing of fatwas 156; and Muslim minorities in the West 314; role of 156—7; scholarly views on 158; see also qadis

Mughal Empire (India), state and politics 368, 369 Muhammad, Prophet: agency from 376—7; Arab ancestry 396; authority 54, 165, 263, 358, 375, 378, 408; Companions 56, 141, 172, 179, 210, 257, 288, 306, 358, 434; death 23, 54, 128, 172, 212, 305, 346, 359, 433, 436; example 5, 303; family and successors 19, 146, 166, 179, 208, 324, 327, 359, 375, 416; hadith see hadith; lifetime 18, 51, 198, 225, 288, 301, 358, 428, 429; messengership 127, 347, 358, 402, 407; miracles 289; rulings 51, 158, 280; sacred and temporal roles 18, 48, 383, 416; Sunnah see hadith

mujtahids (scholars qualified in ijtihad) 259, 263 mukhtasars (legal treatises) 393, 411 murder see crime and punishment Musawah global movement 347—9 Muslim Brothers 315, 318

Muslim minorities in the West: balancing of assimilation and adherence to Islam 314; discrimination against 314; early jurisprudence as to 313; history of minority experience 313; imams, role of 314; and Islamic Awakening 315; justification for non-integration 314; maintenance of separate Muslim identity 314; modern changes in relationship with West 314; modern migration to West 313; muftis, role of 314; and Muslim Brothers 315; Muslim minorities worldwide 313; Muslims born in the West 315; unity of Islamic law and culture 314; and Wahhabi-oriented organizations 315; see also offiqh al-aqalliyyat

Mu ‘ tazilite legal school 100-7, 109

nasab (legitimate lineage) 330-1 ‘native courts’ in Nigeria 163 natural law: ‘Common Morality Theory’ (CMT) and 100; creation and 47-51; Divine Command Theory and 98, 99; first principles 43; formulation of law 45-6; function 43; Islamic legal principles and 47-60; juristic discretion and 56-8; law making and 58, 58-60; and medieval Christianity 100; modern interpretations 100; morality and 99; origins in ancient Greek philosophy 100; political philosophy and 60-3; politics and 60-3; society and 45-6; theory of being 43-4 ‘Near Eastern’ legal culture see pre-Islamic law Nigerian ‘native courts’ 163 nikah (marriage) see marriage, family and succession

non-Muslims: conquered territories, Islamic policy towards 361; andfiqh al-aqalliyyat 319; jizya 370—1

al-Nu ' man, Abu Hanifa 20, 22, 23, 54, 55, 57, 75, 141, 142-4, 145, 147, 148, 151, 211, 213, 306, 307, 308, 310, 328, 431; see also Hanafi legal school

organ donation or transplantation, ethics of 117 original state of humanity see natural law Ottoman Empire: codification 393; end of, and abolition of caliphate 293, 305, 402; jizya 370-1; Majalla (Mecelle) law of custom 292, 393; muftis 165; qadis 162; state and politics 368-71; type of Islamic law 12

Pakistan as ‘Islamic state’ 406-9 paternity see marriage, family and succession patriarchalism 324, 325, 326, 335, 340-6, 351 pluralism 20-6; see also ikhtilaf politics see constitutional law; natural law; state poll tax see jizya power see state pragmatic approach to ikhtilaf 214, 216, 217 prayer see daily prayers pregnancy, ethics of 118 pre-Islamic law: adoption (‘recycling’) by

Islamic law 275, 281; Byzantine legal system 279; geographical scope 275; jurisprudence 281; law and state in ‘Near Eastern’ legal culture 278; legal pluralism 281; limitations of conventional historiography 276; orthodox Islamic scholarship 280-1; and regional legal culture 276, 281; Sasanian legal system

278- 9; temporal scope 275; transition from pre-Islamic to Islamic state legal systems

279- 80; tribal legal systems 278; variations in continuity with Islamic law 276

pre-Islamic legal traditions 275-82 profane (domain of) 26-8; see also mu' amalat ‘proprietor’-oriented view of law 74 public officials in Sunni constitutional

theory 422-4 public order and huqUq Allah 69 public policy, maqasid al-Shari‘ah as 204 punishment see crime and pu nishment

qada (adjudication) 383-4 qadhf (homicide) 72 qadis ( judges): historical development 158-64;

historical sources 157; role of 156-7; scholarly views on 157-8; women as 161; see also muftis al-Qarafi, Ahmad ibn Idris 172-3, 197-8 al-Qarafi, Shihab al-Din 6, 51, 258—61, 368, 416, 419, 420-3

qawa‘idfiqhiyya (legal canons): for allocation of power between judicial and political authorities 225; burden of proof canon 234; categories 227-8; categories of 222; causation and 226; certainty canon 229; comparative law approach to 242-3; consensus canons 223-4; contractual obligations canon 224; contradictory evidence canon 235; correlation between 226; court procedure canons 234; custom canon 224, 227, 229, 292; darura 224; definition 221; delegation, theology of 233, 235; divine legislative supremacy, theory of 233; doubt canon 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 234, 235; emergence 221, 222; equitable principles 224; equity (extratextual-source) canons 227; evaluation canon 229; evidence canon 224, 226; evidentiary canons 234-5; extratextual canons 228, 232, 233-4; extratextual sources 224; five categories of 222; five universal canons

227, 229, 233, 292; functional classification 228; general canons 229, 230; general standard for determining law of social relations and transactions 225; governance canons 228, 236-7; hadith as source 222-3; hardship canon 229; impermissibility presumption 233; interpretive canons 227, 228, 231-2; interpretive sources 223; interpretive-source canons 227; in Islamic legal history 238-40; in Islamic legal theory 240-1; judicial conduct canons 236; from judicial practice, precedents and procedures 224-5; judicial procedure canons 234, 236; from legal reasoning 224; literal meaning canon 232; and maqasid al-

Shari' ah 197-9; maqasid al-Shari'ah distinguished 229; no harm canon 224, 226, 229; non­superfluity canon 224; paternity canon 226, 230; permissibility presumption 225, 233; plain meaning canon 223; from practical principles, presumptions and governance norms 225-6; procedural canons 228, 234-5; procedural presumptions 233; Qur’an as source 222; reasonable person standard 224; source-based classification 228; source-preference canons

228, 232-3; sources 222-7; specific canons 229, 230-1; structural canons 228, 237-8; study of 221-2, 238-43; substantive canons 227, 228; textual canons 228, 232; textual-source canons 227; from transplanted law 226-7; universal canons 227, 228, 229, 233, 292; universal canons and universal objectives (maqaasid al- Shari' ah) distinguished 229; uaul ‘amaliyya 224

Qur’an: authenticity of 127; authority of

127; certainty as to interpretation of 138; complimentarity with hadith 129; definition of 127; generalised rulings by 138; hadith as interpretative tool 134; hermeneutics (interpretation) of 129—39; indpendence from hadith 129; punishment for theft as example of interpretation of 133—8; as source of Islamic law 127—39; tolerance for different interpretations of 138

al-Razi, Fakhr al-Din 25, 48, 172-3, 174, 197 reason: analogical 224; autonomous 255;

epistemic 265; practical 265, 377-8; revelation and 51

religious violence 428-38 revelation and reason 51 ritual, law of see ' ibadat

sacred (domain of) 26-8; see also ' ibadat al-Sadiq, Ja far 23, 141, 144, 148, 187; see also

Ja ' fari legal school

Safavid Empire (Iran), state and politics 368-9 same-sex relations 326

Sasanian legal system 278-9 Schacht, Joseph 256-8, 260-1, 262 scholarly interpretation see ijma'; ikhtilaf; judicial authority; jurisdiction and conflict of laws; madhabs; maqasid al-Shari' ah; qawa'idfiqhiyya; sources of Islamic law; Western law segregation of men and women 343 separation see marriage, family and succession sexual relations see marriage, family and succession Shafi’i legal school: and ahl al-ra'i school 55;

al-Ahkam al-Sultaniyya 366, 367; bioethics 114, 115; codification of laws 364; conflict of laws 186, 191; constitutionalism 417, 422, 423; custom 293; dar al-Islam 305; foundation of 146-8; ijma' 178; istihsan 57; legal pluralism 20, 23, 25, 28, 216; marriage 325, 326, 32 8; marriage dissolution 331, 332, 333; maslaha 59; Muhammad ibn Idris al-Shafi i, life and career 146-8; and Mu ' tazilite legal school 104; nature and purpose of Islamic law 15; purposes of law 196, 197; sources of religious knowledge 289; spread of 102; taqlid 263; terrorism 428, 430, 432, 433, 435

al-Sistani, Ali, Grand Ayatullah 374-5 al-Shafi i, Muhammad ibn Idris 16, 20, 23,

53, 55, 57, 102, 103, 137, 141, 142, 143, 145, 146-8, 149, 150, 152, 210, 212, 213, 214, 263, 271, 304, 307, 308, 311, 433, 435; see also Shafi’i legal school

Shari ah (Way of Islam): definition 11; divine origin of 101; fiqh distinguished 101, 347; five objectives 22; as normative 11; see also Islamic law

al-Shaybani, Ahmad ibn Hanbal 23, 145, 147, 150-1, 152, 211, 213, 292, 305; see also Hanbali legal school

Shi'i concept of the state: agency derived from the Prophet 376—7; and Coalitional Provisional Authority (CPA) administration of Iraq 374—5; fatwa of Grand Ayatullah Ali al-Sistani 374—5; fatwas, issuing of 382—3; Hakim, Imam’s role as 384—6; ijtihad 382—3; Imamate 375; imams and politics 378—9; juristic interpretations of Imam’s rule 379—82; jurist’s expanded authority in absence of Imam 382; lutf (divine grace) and 375—6, 377; politics and practical reasoning 377—8; qada (adjudication), political role of 383—4; wilayat al-faqih (comprehensive authority of ju rists) 382

Shi’i view of Islamic law: ijma' 176—7; ikhtilaf 187—8, 192; legal schools see Ismaili legal school; Ja'fari legal school; Zaydi legal school; practical reasoning 224; procedural presumptions 233; reasonable person standard 224; see also Shi'i concept of the state social dimension of law see custom; family law; gender equality; jihad; mu amalat; Muslim minorities in the West; natural law; pre-Islamic legal traditions; succession sources of Islamic law see hadith; Qur’an sovereignty: divine 375; jihad and 308—10; post­occupation return of Iraqi sovereignty 374—5 state: al-Ahkam al-Sultaniyya (Mawardi) 366—7;

caliphate as constitutional government

418— 19; conquered territories, policy towards 361; early caliphate 361-2; early Islam 357; early modern empires 368; Ghaznavid rule in India 371; governance (hukm) 360—1; historical development of political and legal institutions 361—71; historical sources 357; and huquq al-ibad 76; and huquq Allah 72; imperial caliphate (Umayyads and early Abbasids) 362—4; Islamic law in relation

419— 22; Islamic state/governance, notion of 357; Israelite prophetic governance in relation 359; late medieval (post-Mongol) era 367—8; military patronage rule (early medieval period) 364—5; Mughal Empire in India 368, 369; and natural law 60—3; in ‘Near Eastern’ legal culture 278; object of Islamic theory of 375; Ottoman Empire 368—71; Ottoman poll tax on non-Muslims (jizya) 370—1; political concepts in Qur’an and hadith 357; public officials in Sunni constitutional theory 422—4; Safavid Empire (Iran) 368—9; Shi’i conception 374—86; social continuity and political fragmentation 371; sultanates (early medieval period) 364—5; Sunni caliphate discourse 365; Sunni conception 357—71; transition from pre-Islamic to Islamic state legal systems 279—80; ulu al-amr 358; umma 358, 359;

Western conceptions 359; see also codification; constitutional law; natural law; Shi’i concept of the state; sovereignty; terrorism succession see marriage, family and succession sultanate see state

Sunnah see hadith

Sunni view of Islamic law: abrogation of earlier arguments 188; caliphate 365—8; ijma' 176—7; ikhtilaf 183, 192, 208; law schools see Hanafi legal school; Hanbali legal school; Maliki legal school; Shafi’i legal school; Qu r’an and hadith as primary legal sources 127, 129, 133; reasoning from analogy 224

superior argument see ikhtilai f

tahsin (declaring something pleasant) 57 taqlid (conformity to teaching): academic perspectives on 256, 258; authority and 259, 261; and ‘closing of the door of ijtihad’ 257; definition of 257; dominance of 259; epistemic authority 262—5; ijtihad in relation 258, 261, 263; institutionalization of 260; and legal development and innovation 259, 261; mimetic authority 262—5; and mujtahids 259, 263; as negative influence in Islamic law 261, 264; reason and 262, 265; as unquestioning acceptance 257

temporal conflict of laws see ikhtilaf territorial divisions of the world 305—7, 310 terrorism: Islamic definition of 429—32; jihad and 311; modern relevance of classical jurisprudence 437—8; punishment of 432; Qur’an-sanctioned terrorism (hiraba, khawarij) 428; Qur’anic accounts of 429; religious violence 433-7

theft see crime and punishment

‘third gender’ see khunthai transplanted human organs, ethics of 117 transplanted law see legal transplant treatises see mukhtasars

tribal legal systems (pre-Islamic) 278 truth, Divine see kashf waqi'

ului al-amr (persons with authority, rulers) 358 umma (community of Islam) 358, 359 U N Charter: jihad and 311

UN Security Council resolutions on Iraq

374, 375

urf see custom

use of force see jihad

usul al-fiqh (principles ofjurisprudence) 227, 228 usul 'amaliyya (procedural principles) 224 usury, ikhtilaif and prohibition of 190

veiling of women (hijab), regulations on 343 violence see jihad; religious violence; terrorism

Wahhabi-oriented organizations: and Muslim minorities in the West 315

war see jihad well-being see maslaha

Western law, thought and scholarship: autonomous reason 255; certainty, possibility of in modern age 188; customary foundations of law 286; Enlightenment 256; epistemic reason 265; family law 324; andfiqh al- aqalliyydt 319, 320; hadith in 129; individual rights and huquq al-ibad distinguished 69; legal canons 226, 228; legal pluralism 209, 217; original state of humanity 60; origins of Islamic law 276—7; personal status law 324; practical reason 265; revelation and reason 51; state, conceptions of 359; succession law 324; Western legal systems in Muslim countries 11; see also bioethics; Christianity; gender equality; Muslim minorities in the West; natural law

wilaya (authority of Imam) 377

wilayat al-faqih (comprehensive authority of jurists) 382

women see feminism; gender equality; marriage, family and succession

worship, law of see 'ibadat

wujub (obligation): in classical jurisprudence

83—6; ‘command of the sovereign’ model of explanation of 83; concept of legal obligation 82; 'ibadat and 86—90; in Islamic legal thought 82; muamalat and 86—90; range of obligations in classical fiqh 90—4; understandings of 83

al-Zahiri, Dawud ibn Ali ibn Khalaf 23, 152;

see also Zahiri legal school

Zahiri legal school: and ahl al-rai school 55; Dawud al-Zahiri, life and career 152; foundation of 152; legal pluralism 212, 213, 215; ‘literalist’ hermenuetics 138

Zarkashi, Muhammad ibn Bahadur 171, 175—6 Zayd ibn 'Ali 23, 142

Zaydi legal school 23, 141, 176

What is Shari 'ah? What is Islamic law? As we will see, these are two very different questions, but for now let us assume that these two questions substantially overlap. By asking this, I do not mean what are the rules of Shari 'ah or Islamic law, nor am I referencing the constituent sources of each.

I agree that Shari 'ah does represent what may be described as Islamic normativity. I will return to this point later. I also agree that rather than treating Shari ah as a practised disci­pline of deliberative and purposeful practical reasoning, colonial powers reduced Shari 'ah to a code of duties and obligations that had a largely corrupting influence upon the way that the Shari 'ah was understood and practised for centuries. Although the reduction of Shari 'ah normativity to a code-like set of dos and don’ts might have been instituted by colonial pow­

ers for entirely materialistic and pragmatic reasons, one cannot underestimate the impact

of home-grown puritanical movements upon the ways that Shari ah law is understood and perceived in the world today.

In the post-colonial period, most contemporary Muslim countries adopted either the French-based civil law system or some version of the British common law system and limited the application of Islamic law to personal law matters, particularly in the fields