Index

Abbott, 172

Achmat, Zackie, 164 acquired immune deficiency syndrome

(AIDS), 135-77; biology and origins of, 135-36; cancers occurring with, 137-38; in Caribbean, 166-70; causes of, 74, 156-59; conceptions of, 16; controversies over, 146-49 (see also dissidence concerning); course of, 137-38; death rates from, 150, 155, 174; dissidence concerning, 142-44, 163; drug use and, 138-39, 143, 146, 149, 151-53, 156, 174-75; emergence of, 137; gay community and, 145-50, 152-53; geographical origins of, 141-42, 144; history of, 144-50, 155, 160-61; in Latin America, 170-73; and morality, 152-53; opportunistic infections occurring with, 137-38, 157-58; as pandemic, 11; in Pattern I countries, 135, 138, 139, 140, 144, 156; in Pattern II countries, 135, 137, 156, 160, 166; in Pattern III

countries, 135, 139, 173-75; policies on, 147-49, 153, 159, 161-64, 168­71; positive aspects of, 12-13; race and, 151-52, 168; sexuality and, 16, 139, 146, 151-57; social aspects of, 10; societal factors in, 135, 146-54, 159-67, 175-77, 183; spread of, 161; in sub-Saharan Africa, 141, 144, 155-66; surveillance and control related to, 153-54; symptoms of, 137-38; TB and, 96, 158; tests for, 146; treatment of, 147-49, 163-65, 171; uniqueness of, 144, 176-77; in the United States, 144-55.

(ARDS), 119

Africa. See sub-Saharan Africa afterlife, conceptions of, 58-59 Agramont, Jacme d', 43 Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of

Intellectual Property Rights

(TRIPS), 171, 173

AIDS. See acquired immune deficiency syndrome

AIDS Clinical Trials Group (ACTG), 148

AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power

(ACT UP), 145-48

Alves, Rodrigues, 86

Amanti, Dominico, 48-49, 51, 55-56

American Holocaust, 78-81

Amherst, Jeffrey, 82

Anastasius of Sinai, 44; Quaestiones et

Responsiones, 31

Anatomy Act (1832), 104 anthrax, 2, 214n10 anticontagionism, 103 antigenic drift, 74, 111 antigenic shift, 74, 111, 125 antiretroviral therapy (ART), 137, 140­

41, 143, 144, 163-65, 169-73 Antonine Plague, 22, 77 Antoninus, Lucius Aurelius Commodus,

77

Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius, 77 Apollo, 2, 7

Aristotle, 42

Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, 118, 119

ART.

Asclepius, 7

Athens. See Plague of Athens (430-426 B.C.E.)

Augustine, Saint, 25, 30; De Doctrina

Christiana, 48

Australia, 175

avian flu, 119, 127-30

Avicenna (Ibn Sina), 38

Ayurvedic tradition, 5, 105, 118 Azerbaijan, 131

azidothymidine (AZT), 140, 145, 148, 149, 171

Aztecs, 9, 78, 80-81

bacille Calmette-Guerin (BCG), 90

Bahamas, 167

Bangavasi (newspaper), 68 Bangladesh, 108, 173, 174 Battuta, Ibn, from Morocco, 55 Bauer, Henry, 143 Bede, 24 Belgian Congo, 118 Bernard, Master (doctor), 84 Besanpon, France, 84 Bey, Muhammad, 107 Bible, 1, 4-5, 25, 28, 49 Bill Gates Foundation, 164 biological warfare, early forms of, 35, 77, 81, 82

bioterrorism, 87, 214n10

Black Death, 33-61; causes of, 38-44; comparison of Christian and Islamic responses to, 37-61; contemporary accounts of, 15; controversies concerning, 36-37; economic impact of, 59-61; flight from, 44-49; impact of, 36-61; Islam and, 37-61, 69, 71; medical responses to, 37-49, 54-57; origins and spread of, 33-36; plague symptoms during, 21; positive aspects of, 12, 59-60, 71; responses to, 28, 30-31, 37-61; scapegoating of Jews during, 15-16, 53-54; social effects of, 38-59; timeframe of, 22­23; treatment of, 37-38

Black Legend, 82-83 Boccaccio, Giovanni, 46-48, 84, 154 body-snatching, 104

Book of Chilam Balam of Chumayel, 83 Botswana, 164 bovine spongiform encephalopathy (mad cow disease), 129, 177

Brazil, 78, 170-72 Bristol-Myers Squibb, 172 Britain: and cholera, 104-8; imperialism of, 62-69, 86, 105-6; and influenza, 117-18, 120-21; and plague, 62-69 British Civil Service, 65, 67, 68, 71 Bronte sisters, 94

Brown, Edwin, 95

Brown, Mercy, 95 brucellosis, 2

Bruno (film), 150

buboes, 21, 24, 190n11 bubonic plague, 7, 15, 19-22, 24, 29, 65

Buchanan, Patrick, 152

Buckley, William F., 147

Buenos, Aires, Argentina, 70

Bugie, Elizabeth, 90

Bunyan, John, 90

Burdwan Sanjivani (newspaper), 66

Burke, William, 104

Burroughs Welcome, 148

Bush, George H.

Bush, George W., 87, 153-54, 168

Caldwell, John, 157

Caldwell, Pat, 157

Calmette, Albert, 90

Cambodia, 173

Camille (film), 94

Canada, 118

cancer, 137-38

Cape Town, South Africa, 69-70

Caribbean, AIDS in, 166-70

Carter, Jimmy, 126

Casas, Bartolome de las, 82

Catholic Church, 168, 173

CDC. See Centers for Disease Control

Centers for Disease Control (CDC), 125, 126, 130, 133, 144-45, 151

Central America, AIDS in, 170

Charoen Pokphand (CP), 129

Chase, Chevy, 126

Chauliac, Gui de, 47

Chekov, Anton, 94 children, and AIDS, 165-66

China: AIDS in, 173-75; conceptions of disease in, 4-6; and influenza, 119, 124, 128; and plague, 34, 63­64, 68; and SARS, 108, 182 cholera, 101-9; causes of, 101-3, 107­8; death rates from, 101; environmental factors in, 103, 107; history of, 102; imperialism and, 105; pandemics of, 102; responses to, 103-5; societal factors in, 102-4; symptoms of, 95, 101-2; transmission of, 98, 101-2, 107-8; treatment of, 108-9

Chopin, Frederic, 94

Christianity: and the afterlife, 58-59; Islamic responses to plague compared to those of, 38-61; and Native Americans, 84; and original sin doctrine, 25, 30; and plague, 25-31, 38, 40-61; and science/medicine, 41-43, 54-56

Cipla corporation, 164 civil liberties, public health imperatives and, 97, 123, 146-47, 153-54

Clinton, Bill, 149

Cohn, Samuel K., Jr., 194n78 collapse therapy, 92-93 Colombia, 170 colonialism. See imperialism combination therapy, 149, 171 commerce, and the spread of disease,

33, 35

Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs), 128-29 Confucius, 64

consumption, 90, 93-95 contagion: Greek theories and, 6;

plague, 20, 30, 31, 39-44, 47-48; smallpox, 75; tuberculosis, 91 contagionism, 103 Cook, David Noble, 79 Coppo Stefani, Marchionne di, 57 Cordoba, Alfonso de, 53 Cortes, Hernan, 9, 78 Coulter, Ann, 147 cover-ups of disease, 64, 105, 108, 124, 130, 151, 160

Crosby, Alfred W., 79, 114, 117, 123, 187n29; Epidemic and Peace, 125

Cruz, Oswaldo, 86 Cuba, 168-70 Cuitlahuac, 80 Culshaw, Rebecca, 143 Cuthbert, Saint, 24 cytokine storm, 119, 127, 131

Dance of Death, 26, 76

Dante Alighieri, Divine Comedy, 58 Defense of Marriage Act, 153 Democratic Republic of Congo, 155, 160

Desai, U.

99

disease: benefits of, 12-13, 71-72; causes of, 2, 4-6; coercive treatments of, 97-98; concept of, 10; cover-ups or nonreporting of, 64, 105, 108, 124, 130, 151, 160, 182; environmental factors in, 5-6, 34­35, 91, 93-94, 100, 103, 113; flight from, 29-32, 44-50, 84; gods or God as origin of, 1-2, 4-5, 7, 84, 152; history of, 2-16, 179-81; human impact on, 13-17, 182-83; medical advances contributing to, 11; modern accounts of, 8-16; noninfectious, 16; positivist approach to, 9, 15-16; preventive measures for, 2-3, 38; rational approach to, 4-6, 39-40; relativist approach to, 10, 14; social effects of, 7-12; sources of information about,

2- 8; spread of, 2, 9; study of, 13-17; transition periods concerning, 180­81; written historical references to,

3- 8, 14-15

Dnydn Prakash (newspaper), 67

Doctors without Borders, 164 Dols, Michael, 52, 54-55 Dominican Republic, 78, 166-68 Dostoyevsky, Fyodor, 94

Duesberg, Peter, 142-44, 163 Duffy, John, 79

Dumas, Alexandre, fils, The Lady of the

Camillias, 94

Duncan, Christopher J., 194n78 Duplessis, Marie, 94

Dutch East Indies, 118

Ebers Papyrus, 73

Ebola, 119, 177, 179, 180 economy, Black Death and, 59-61 Ecuador, 78

Egypt, 3-4, 59-60, 73, 131

Eley, Susannah, 107

El Salvador, 170

Emergency AIDS Relief, 168 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 94

England, 59-60 environment: as cause of disease, 5-6,

34-35, 91, 100, 103, 107-8, 113; human damages to, 10, 179-81 Epidemic Diseases Act (1897), 66, 67 Esculo, Saladin Ferro de, 43 Estonia, 175 Etaples, France, 120

Euclid, 41

Evagrius Scholasticus, 24, 27 evil eye, 41

factory farms, 128-29 Fairbanks, Alaska, 118 Falwell, Jerry, 152 Fauci, Anthony, 148

Flagellant movement, 28, 52-53,

196n133

flight: from disease, 84; from plague,

29-32, 44-50 flu. See influenza fluid replacement therapy, 108

Foligno, Gentile da, 41, 46

Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 147-48

Ford, Gerald, 125-26

Fracastoro, Girolamo, 15, 75

France, 65, 103-4, 120, 121

free will, 49

French disease, 74

Fumento, Michael, 146

Gaia effect, 180

Galen, 38, 39, 45, 46, 196n108; De

Differentiis Febrium, 41

Galileo Galilei, 41

Gallo, Robert, 145

Garbo, Greta, 94

Garrett, Laurie, 179

Gatacre, W F., 67 gay community, and AIDS, 144-50, 152-53

Gay Men's Health Crisis (GMHC), 145

Germany, 104-5, 120

germ theory of disease, 62, 118, 182

Ghana, 118

Gilgamesh, 3

Gilles li Muisis of Tournai, 55

Giovanni della Penna, 43

Giraldo, Roberto, 143, 164 glanders, 2

Gorgas, William, 108

Great Plague of London (1665), 37 great pox, 74

Greece, 5-7

Gregory of Tours, 28

Gregory the Great, Pope, 28

Guatemala, 78, 170

Guerin, Camille, 90

Guillain-Barre syndrome, 91, 126

Guyana, 166

HAART.

Haiti, 78, 167-68

Hajar al-‘Asqalani, Ibn, 42, 50, 55 Hamburg, Germany, 104-5 Hanks, Tom, 150 hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS),

119, 177, 180 Harappa, 3 Hare, William, 104 Harven, Etienne de, 143 Haskell County, Kansas, 120 Hawaii, 69-70, 83, 153 health boards, 56-57 Heinrich of Herford, 52 hemorrhagic fevers, 119, 179 Hendra virus, 180 hepatitis, 2 herpes, 2 highly active antiretroviral therapy

(HAART), 140, 149-50, 164, 171, 172

Hippocrates and the Hippocratic tradition, 5-6, 31, 38; On Airs, Waters, and Places, 6; Aphorisms, 89; Epidemics, 22, 115, 190n11; Prognostics, 15

Hispaniola, 78 Homer, The Iliad, 2 Honduras, 170 Honolulu, Hawaii, 69-70 Hopkins, Donald, 73, 87 Huangdi Nei Jing (The Yellow Emperor’s

Classic of Medicine), 5 Huayna Capac, 80 Hudson, Rock, 145 Hudson Bay Company, 118 Hugo, Victor, 94 human immunodeficiency virus (HIV):

challenges of, 139-40; characteristics of, 74, 135-36; discovery of, 145; heterosexual transmission of, 16, 139, 145, 151, 152, 156-57, 170, 175; homosexual transmission of, 16, 139, 145, 149, 151, 156, 167, 170; mother-to-child transmission

(MTCT) of, 139, 145, 158, 163, 164; origins of, 141-44, 155, 160; symptoms of, 136-37; transmission of, 138-39, 145, 146, 149, 151, 152, 156-58, 167, 170, 175; treatment of, 139-41. See also acquired immune deficiency syndrome

humoral theory of disease, 5, 39, 81, 84, 105, 108

Hunter, Susan, 150-51

Husayn ibn Ali, 52 Hyde-Cates, G. E., 66

Illinois, 155 immune system, 111, 136 imperialism: and cholera, 105; and disease, 12; Native American devastation by, 80-85; and plague, 57, 62-70

Incas, 9

India: AIDS in, 160, 174; cholera in, 102, 105-6; conceptions of disease in, 5; imperialism in, 57, 62-69, 86, 105-6; influenza in, 117-18, 121; plague and, 57, 62-69; resistance to Western medicine in, 62-69, 86; smallpox in, 73, 86

Indian Plague Commission, 62, 66 Indonesia, 118, 131 influenza, 111-33; avian, 127-30;

causes of, 111, 116; challenges of, 111; controversies concerning, 128­30; death rates from, 113, 114, 117­18, 123, 127, 131; environmental factors in, 113; H1N1 pandemic (2009), 112, 117, 130-33; history of, 114-27; impact of, 122-23; mutating capability of, 111, 124; 1918-1919 pandemic, 113, 114, 117-23; origin of term, 115; pandemics of, 116-17, 124-28 (see also 1918-1919 pandemic; H1N1 pandemic [2009]); responses to, 122-27, 129-33; seasonality of, 113; societal factors in, 113, 121-23, 128-30; symptoms of, 112-13, 119; transmission of, 19, 112-13; treatment of, 116; types of, 111-12; vaccination against, 91, 111, 124-33

inoculation, 85-86.

Italy, 28, 105, 108

Ivins, Bruce, 214n10

Jacob of Voragine, 28

Jamaica, 167

James of Pavia, 48

Janibeg, 35

Japan, 174

Jenner, Edward, 85

Jerome, Saint, 1

Jesuits, 84

Jews, scapegoating of, 15-16, 53-54

John of Ephesus, 21, 24-27, 57

John of Saxony, 45-46, 51 Johnson, Earvin “Magic,” 148

Journal of Hygiene, 62

Julian of Norwich, 51

Justinian, Byzantine emperor, 26, 27, 192n47

Kaposi's sarcoma, 137, 145, 155 Kashlari, Abraham, 41

Kathlr, Ibn, 50

Keats, John, 91, 93-94

Kenya, 159

Khatima, Ibn, 15, 39-40, 42

Khaldun, Ibn, 42 al-Khatlb, Ibn, 39-41, 44-45, 55-56 al-Khattab, Umar ibn, Caliph, 29-30, 54

Kidman, Nicole, 94

Kilbourne, Edwin, 126

Knox, Robert, 104

Koch, Robert, 62, 90, 91, 101, 108, 143-44

Konrad of Megenberg, 43

Koop, C. Everett, 148, 154

Kramer, Larry, 145

Laos, 173

Larouche, Lyndon, 147

Latin America, AIDS in, 170-73

Latta, Thomas, 108

Lauritsen, John, 143

lentiviruses, 136

Loneti, Theobaldus, 84

Louisiana, 155

Lubb, Ibn, 42, 44-45, 47, 50, 55

Lübeck, Germany, 61, 90

Ludendorff, Eric von, 120

Lynn, James, 125

lysis, 74, 136

Machaut, Guillaume de, 47

macroparasites, 11, 181

mad cow disease. See bovine spongiform encephalopathy

Madyan, Ibn Abu, 44

Maher, Bill, 132

malaria, 2, 19, 108

Malawi, 162

Mallon, Mary, 98

Malthus, Thomas, 103

Manchuria, 63, 65

Mann, Thomas, The Magic Mountain, 92

Mao Zedong, 124

al-Maqrizi, Ahmad ibn ‘Ali, of Cairo, 57

Marker, Lucinda, 19

Mather, Cotton, 85

Mathews, David, 125

Mbeki, Thabo, 143, 160, 163-64, 183

McNeill, William, 79, 189n49; Plagues and Peoples, 9-13, 181

measles, 2

Mecca, 105

Medecins Sans Frontieres (Doctors without Borders), 164

medicine: and plague, 37-49, 54-57, 62-71; resistance to, 62-69, 86, 99, 105-7

Meese, Ed, 147

Merck, 172

Mesopotamia, 3

Mexico, 78-79, 130, 131, 167, 173 miasmatic theory, 6, 38-39, 63, 103, 105, 107, 116

microparasites, 10, 11, 181 Mohenjo-Daro, 3

Mongol Empire, 9, 35

Montagnier, Luc, 145

Montague, Mary Wortley, Lady, 85 morality: AIDS and, 152-53; plague and, 22-23, 25-26, 36-37, 61

Moreau de Jonnes, Alexandre, 106 Moulin Rouge! (film), 94

Mswati III, king of Swaziland, 162 Mu'awiya, 29

Mugabe, Robert, 162

Muhammad, Prophet, 29-30, 39, 44, 45, 50, 107

Mullis, Kary, 143

Museveni, Yoweri, 161, 163 Mussis, Gabriele de, of Piacenza, 35 Mycobacterium tuberculosis, 89

Namibia, 164

Naples, Italy, 105, 108

National Animal Identification System (NAIS), 129

National Cancer Institute, 148

National Immunization Conferences, 126

National Institute of Allergies and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), 148

Native Americans: conceptions of disease held by, 81, 189n49; impact of disease on, 78-85; imperialism’s impact on, 80-85; and smallpox, 9, 78-85

Nelmes, Sara, 85

Neolithic period, 2-3, 89, 114, 180

New York Times (newspaper), 126, 132­33

New Zealand, 121, 175

Nicaragua, 170 noninfectious diseases, 16

North Manchurian Plague Prevention Service, 62

Obama, Barack, 132, 147, 149

Oldham, Robert, 104

Olympics, 132

Onesimus, 85 original sin, 25, 30, 52

Outbreak (film), 179

Padian, Nancy, 152

Pakistan, 173, 174

Paleolithic period, 2, 89

Panama, 78, 170

Papua New Guinea, 175

Pasteur, Louis, 62

Paul the Deacon, 31, 47 Peloponnesian War, 6-9, 76-77

Penkaye, John bar, 31-32, 47

Perdue, 129

Pericles, 9

Peru, 170

Petrarch, Francesco, 51

Pfeiffer, Richard, 122 pharmaceutical industry, 13, 127, 128,

141, 143, 163, 171-72

Philadelphia (film), 150

Philippines, 106, 108

Phipps, James, 85 pilgrimages, 105-6

Pizarro, Francisco, 9 plague, 19-72; benefits of, 58-60, 71­72; in the Bible, 4-5; causes of, 19­20, 38-44, 47-48, 62 (see also gods or God as origin of); death rates from, 22, 23, 37, 61; disease outbreaks attributed to, 22; disposal of corpses from, 25-26, 57; environmental factors in, 34-35; First Pandemic of, 21-33; flight from, 29-32, 44-50; gods or God as origin of, 1-2, 7, 24-25, 28, 39-40, 43-44, 53-54; history of, 4-8, 22-23; impact of, 27, 32-33, 36-61, 71-72; late medieval conception of, 15, 38; lessons of, 70-72; meaning of term, 1; medical responses to, 26, 37-49, 54-57, 62-71; and morality, 45-49; origins and spread of, 23-24, 33-36, 61-62; outbreaks of, 22-23, 37; personifications of, 61; precautions against, 38, 46, 63-64; responses to, 23-33, 37-70; Second Pandemic of, 21-23, 33-61; smallpox mistaken for, 7, 22, 76; social effects of, 27-33, 38-59, 62-72; symptoms of, 15, 20­22; Third Pandemic of, 21, 23, 61­70; transmission of, 19-20; treatment of, 21-22, 37-38; types of, 19-20.

See also Black Death; bubonic plague; disease

Plague of ‘Amwas (638-639), 29-30, 39, 44, 45

Plague of Athens (430-426 B.C.E.), 6-9, 22, 76-78

Plague of Naples (1656), 37

Plague of the Antonines (164-180), 22, 77

pneumonia, 112-13, 119 pneumonic plague, 15, 20-22, 63, 65 Poe, Edgar Allen, 94

“Poem of the Righteous Sufferer,” 3 poisoning, accusations of, 53-54, 65, 103-5, 107 poliomyelitis, 4, 11 politics, 126, 148-49, 152, 162-64 Poona Vaibhav (newspaper), 67 positivist approach to disease, 9, 15-16 poverty: and AIDS, 159-60, 163, 176,

183; and cholera, 103; and influenza, 117; and TB, 91, 94, 100 prayer, to combat plague, 28, 50, 57-58 Preston, Richard, The Hot Zone, 179 Primus of Gorlitz, 61 processions, to combat plague, 28, 50,

52, 57-58 Procopius of Caesarea, 21, 24-27 prostitution, 139, 146, 151, 153, 167,

170, 173, 174, 209n29 public health measures: and AIDS,

146-47, 152, 176; and cholera, 103­8; and influenza, 122-33; and plague, 40, 56-57, 62-70; and smallpox, 86; and TB, 97-98

Puerto Rico, 170 purgatory, 58-59

al-Qayyim, Ibn, 50, 55

Quod liceat pestilentiam fugere (“That it should be permitted to flee the pestilence”), 48

Qur'an, 30, 58

al-Razl, Muhammad ibn Zakariya

(Rhazes), 15; Treatise on the Small­pox and Measles, 77-78 race, AIDS and, 151-52, 168 Ramses V, 4, 73 Rand, W C., 67 Rasnick, David, 143 Ray brothers, 147 Reade, W. L., 67-68 Reagan, Ronald, 126, 148 religion, science vs., 40-57 resistance, to medical interventions,

56-57, 62-70, 86, 99, 103-7 retroviruses, 74, 136 reverse transcription, 74, 135-36 Rhazes. See al-Razl, Muhammad ibn

Zakariya

Ribbeniz, Heinrich, 54

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 69-70, 86

Roberts, Janine, 143

Robertson, Donald, 66

Roche, 172

Roman Empire, 77

roqueros (rockers), 169

Rufus of Ephesus, 22

Rushd al-Jadd, Ibn, 44

Russia: AIDS in, 175; and cholera, 104; and smallpox, 87; and tuberculosis, 91, 96, 99

Russian State Research Center of

Virology and Biotechnology, 87

Ryan White Care Act, 148. See also

White, Ryan

Sabin, Albert, 125

San Francisco, California, 69-70 sanitoria, 92

SARS. See severe acute respiratory syndrome

Saturday Night Live comedy program, 126

scapegoating, 15-16, 27, 53-54, 103-4 Schatz, Albert, 90

schistosomiasis, 2, 4

Schumann, Robert, 94 science, religion vs., 40-57

Scott, Susan, 194n78

Secretum Secretorum (Book of Secrets),

41-42

Senegal, 65, 159

Sepoy Mutiny (1857), 67, 105 septicemic plague, 15, 20, 22 sermon cycles, to combat plague, 28-29

Seven Years' War (1756-1763), 116 severe acute respiratory syndrome

(SARS), 108, 119, 182

sewer systems, 3, 108 sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), 139, 151, 152, 155, 158 sex work. See prostitution ash-ShaqUrl, Muhammad ibn ‘All, 55-56

Shelley, Percy, 94 Shi'ites, 29, 52 Sigerist, Henry, 80 Silverman, Mervyn, 147 Simond, Paul-Louis, 62 Simon of Corvino, 47 Sina, Ibn (Avicenna), 38 Sirach, Jesus ben, 43 smallpox, 73-87; in the Americas, 78­85; cause of, 73-74; controversy over remaining strains of, 87; in Egypt, 4, 73; eradication of, 76, 86-87; in Europe, 74, 76-78, 85-86; great pox vs., 74; history of, 2, 73-78, 85-87; immunity to, 74, 76, 85-86; Native Americans' suffering from, 9, 79-84; plague mistakenly diagnosed instead of, 7, 22, 76; plague vs., 76; symptoms of, 6-7, 75, 77-78; transmission of, 19, 75, 77, 82; types of, 74, 75

Snow, John, 106, 107-8, 182

Sontag, Susan, AIDS and Its Metaphors,

176

Soper, George, 98

South Africa, 143, 159-60, 162-64, 166 South America, AIDS in, 170-73 South Korea, 174

Spain, 121

STDs. See sexually transmitted diseases Stevenson, Robert Louis, 94 streptomycin, 90 sub-Saharan Africa: AIDS in, 16, 135,

139, 141-42, 144, 155-66; malaria in, 108

Sunnis, 29, 52 Susruta Samhita, 73 Swaziland, 162, 164 swine flu, 125, 131 symptoms: of cholera, 95, 101-2; of

HIV/AIDS, 136-38; of influenza, 112-13, 119; of plague, 15, 20-22; of smallpox, 6-7, 75, 77-78; of TB, 89, 95

Tashkopruzade (Ottoman jurist), 55 Tanzania, 117-18, 159, 162, 166 TB. See tuberculosis

Thailand, 130, 173-74 Thoreau, Henry David, 94 Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian

War, 6-9, 10, 25, 76-78 Tlaxcala people, 12 Todros, Isaac Ben, 41 trade. See commerce transportation and travel, and the transmission of disease, 20, 33-34, 61, 71, 107, 115-16, 131, 181 Treatment Action Campaign (TAC),

164 Trinidad/Tobago, 159, 167 Trudeau, Edward Livingston, 92 Tshabalala-Msimang, Manto, 164 tuberculosis (TB), 89-100; AIDS and,

96, 158; causes of, 90-91, 100; cure for, 90; environmental factors in, 91, 100; extensively drug-resistant strain of (XDR-TB), 95-96; history of, 2, 4, 89-90, 95, 98; multi-drug-resistant strain of (MDR-TB), 95-100; New York City epidemic of, 96-99; societal factors in, 91, 93-95, 100; symptoms of, 89, 95; transmission of, 19, 91, 95, 96-97, 100; treatment of, 90-93, 95-97, 99 tularemia, 2 Tull, John, 19-20, 22 Tunisia, 57, 106-7 Tuskegee syphilis experiment, 152 typhoid fever, 2, 7, 98 Typhoid Mary case, 98

typhus, 7, 19

Tyson Foods, 129

‘Ubayda, Abu, 29-30, 54

Uganda, 159, 161, 163, 164

Ukraine, 175

Umar, Caliph. See al-Khattab, Umar ibn ‘Umar of Malaga, 45

United Nations AIDS agency (UNAIDS), 159, 164

United States: and AIDS, 144-55, 167, 169; and cholera, 106; and H1N1 flu, 118, 120-23, 125-28, 130-33; plague in, 19, 23, 62, 69-70; smallpox in, 78, 85; tuberculosis in, 92, 94-99

U.S. Centers for Disease Control, 87

U.S. Department of Agriculture, 129

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 132

U.S. Supreme Court, 147

vaccination: for HIV, 139-40; for influenza, 111, 125-27, 129-30, 132-33; opposition to, 85-86, 126­27, 132-33; significance of, 85; for smallpox, 85-87; for tuberculosis, 90-91

vampires, 94-95

Vancouver, Canada, 132

Variola major, 74, 85, 87

Variola minor, 74, 75, 87 variolation, 85-86. See also vaccination

Verdi, Giuseppe, La Traviata, 94 Vermont, 71, 94, 95, 132, 133, 153, 154, 182

Vibrio cholerae, 101, 108

Viravaidya, Mechai, 173

virgin soil epidemics, 9, 12, 79-83, 86, 118, 125

viruses, 73-74, 111-12, 135-36

Vyäpäri (newspaper), 66, 68-69

Waksman, Selman, 90

war, and transmission of disease, 8, 35, 76-77, 81, 82, 85, 106, 115-18, 120­21, 161

al-Wardl, Ibn, 33-35, 50, 61

Washington, Denzel, 150

Washington, George, 85

wasting syndrome/disease, 138, 155

The Wedding Singer (film), 150

White, Ryan, 147. See also Ryan White Care Act

Whitmore, Thomas, 79-80

WHO. See World Health Organization

Williams, Nushawn, 153

Wilson, Woodrow, 120-21

women, and AIDS, 152, 165-66

World Bank, 131, 172

World Health Organization (WHO),

11, 71, 87, 96-97, 124-25, 130, 132

World Influenza Center, 124

World Trade Organization (WTO), 171

World War I, 120-21

Wu Liande, 64, 65, 68, 112, 119

yellow fever, 2, 108

Yersin, Alexandre, 62

Yersinia pestis, 19-20, 33, 34, 36, 62, 188-89n48

Zambia, 162, 164

Zimbabwe, 159, 160, 162

Zinsser, Hans, 9, 80

Zuma, Jacob, 166