The transformation of warfare in the Bronze Age was perhaps the most profound transformation in human history.

There is no doubting that our knowledge of the conduct of later wars and the impact of tech­nologies such as gunpowder is vastly superior. Yet it was over the course of the second millennium bce that the commonplace weapons of the battlefield - swords, shields, lances, battle-axes, helmets and body armour - were either invented or first became widespread in societies across Europe.

The weapons used, the forms of violence performed, and the ways that bodies of armed warriors moved together and against each other using these weapons established a pattern that was to remain broadly in place for thousands of years. This chapter analyses these developments from a European perspec­tive, drawing on material from the Mediterranean, the Continent, the Nordic region and the Atlantic islands to trace developments in warfare from the third millennium bce until the twilight of the Bronze Age in the early first millennium bce. Violence against individuals, visible on human remains, is widely attested, ranging from males of warrior age at Thormarton (England) to women, men and children at Sund (Norway), or heads as totems or trophies at Gradiste Idjos (Serbia). Understanding violence against individuals or communities relies on a few widely dispersed examples, and so our primary focus here is on the broader picture of new developments in institutional forms of violence, particularly warfare-related activities as revealed through the study of weaponry and imagery. We use a general initial Bronze Age (IBA) for when metal weaponry was scarce and primarily made from arsenical copper, broadly from the early third millennium until about 1600 bce. Our full Bronze Age (FBA) is characterised by the widespread use of tin bronze, broadly from the middle of the second millennium bce until the end of that millennium.

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