The Polish-Lithuanian Alliance: Destruction of the Teutonic Order

Great Prince Algirdas died in 1377 and was succeeded by Jogaila (Iagailo), his eldest son by the PrincessJuliana of Tver. The Iegitimacywas confirmed by his uncle Kestutis, who would be badly repaid by his nephew for the principled support.

Order for help, and with a mixed German-Lithuanian force at­tacked Jogaila, but was defeated. The two cousins then reached an agreement and turned on the Teutonic Knights, destroying their strongholds of Georgenburg, New Marienburg, New Baierburg and New Marienwerder.

While Algirdas was still Grand Prince, the last Piast ruler of Poland, Casimir III (The Great), died in 1370 without leaving an heir.

The Polish nobles’ choice fell on Jogaila, who had put his candidacy forward and in the meeting at Kreva (today’s Belarus) on 14 August 1385 it was agreed that Jogaila would marry Jad- wiga and become King of Poland. In return, he agreed to convert to Roman Catholicism along with his subjects, to return land that had been taken from Poland, and to unite Lithuania-Rus and Poland into a single Roman Catholic Kingdom. Most of the inhabitants of Rus, however, were Greek Orthodoxwhose fate was not directly specified, in what became known as the Union ofKrevo.Jogaila was crowned in 1386 as Wladyslav II, but whenjadwiga died in 1399 at the age of 24 the Union of Krevo became a dead letter, particularly in view of Vytatutas’ objections to what he saw as a Lithuanian loss of sovereignty.

IfJogaila expected to unify the Polish Kingdom and the Lithuanian-Rus principality under his reign he was sadly dis­appointed. Many of the nobles objected to the forced Catholi­cism which was to be introduced, and in 1389 led by his cousin Vytautas, they revolted against Jogailas young brother Skirgaila who was acting as his deputy in Lithuania-Rus. The revolt did not go well, and Vytautas once again sought the help of the Teu­tonic Knights in exchange for Samogitia.

Lithuania-Rus with capital at Cracow, and Skirgaila was ap­pointed Prince of Kyiv. Jogaila proved to be a popular king by doing what Lithuanian rulers had done before—not interfere with local traditions in Rus. He also accepted direction from the Polish nobility and distributed landed estates to his sup­porters with little or no payment.

The Golden Horde, in the meantime, was experiencing an internal struggle for the khanate and one of the contenders, Tokhtamysh, appealed to Vytautas for help. Seeing an oppor­tunity to dominate Mongol politics, Vytautas agreed and began to raise a large army. It took three years to gather the force of Lithuanians, Rusins, Teutonic Knights, Poles and Tokhtamyshs Mongols, equipped with up-to-date armor and weaponry, in­cluding cannons. Setting out from Kyiv in 1399 Vytautas met the Mongols led by Khan Edigeyby the Vorskla River, an east­ern tributary of the Dnipro not far away from today’s Ukrainian city of Poltava. The battle was described in the Nikon Chroni­cle, according to which Edigey s envoys approached Vytautas with a proposal to settle matters peacefully. Confident of victory, the Grand Prince demanded extreme conditions, which were countered by Khan Edigey s equally unacceptable terms, and a great battle broke out. As the cavalry and infantry formations clashed Vytautas’ men began to gain the upper hand and victory seemed in sight.

The defeat in the battle on the Vorskla was a great setback for Vytautas’ ambition to expand to the east, but one which would be compensated for in the west by gains from the Teutonic Order. It would require an alliance with Wladyslav II of Poland, and in 1401 a new treaty was signed between the two cousins, confirming the Ostrov agreement of 1382 but with a further stipulation that each would be considered a candidate for the other’s throne in the case of death. The arrangement was con­firmed by the Polish nobility and the boyars of Lithuania-Rus, who were moving closer towards a cooperative relationship. Both saw the need to counter the threat from the Teutonic Or­der, which had grown in strength duringJogailas and Vytautas’ infighting and when the latter went to the Order for support.

Nowunited in a common cause, the Grand Prince Vytau­tas and KingwladyslavII decided to break the Order’s hold on Pomerania and Prussia. The Teutonic Knights had regained Samogitia in 1404 by the treaty of Raciaz, when Svidrigaila had also gone over to the Order for support. Now a Samogitian up­rising broke out in 1409 with Vytautas’ support, and the Order declared war.

To mask their intentions, Wladyslav and Vytautas kept the Teutonic Order off balance by feigning troop concentra­tions, with small-scale raids on the Prussian northern and south­ern borders. The aim was to prevent the Knights from discov­ering the agreed upon rendezvous point at Czerwinsk, some 50 miles from the Prussian border. The Polish stronghold was on the Wisla (Vistula) River which would have to be crossed by the allies’ large forces in broad daylight. On 2 July the Polish- Galician army completed the crossing; the next day they were joined by the Lithuanians and Rusians and the combined army began to advance northward. Four days later it was on the Pruss­ian border and on 9 July it entered Prussian territory with the usual indiscriminate plundering and devastation that was the usual byproduct of warfare. Many Lithuanians were still pagans, whose attacks on churches came to an abrupt end when two Lithuanians were hung on gallows, which they themselves had constructed in full view of the army, but looting of non- ecclesiastical property continued.

Not knowing what to expect, the Grand Master of the Teu­tonic Order Ulrich von Jungingen led his assembled army to Schwetz (Swiecia) on the Wisla River to await further reinforce­ments, and for the enemy to reveal his true intensions. The word came that Wladyslav and Vytautas were heading north towards Marienwerden (Kwidzyn) and Marienburg, and leav­ing his commander Heinrich von Plauen with 2,000-3,000 men to block the Poles at Bromberg (Bydgoszcz) VonJungingen himself marched east to meet the enemy’s main force. The Grand Master was heading towards the main ford on the Drewenz (Drweca) River, which was dominated by a strong castle and which Wladyslavs and Vytautas’ forces had to cross. VonJungingen had established himself in a near impregnable position and the allies decided to head northeast to avoid the river altogether. The Teutonic Knights relied heavily on cross­bows, and in addition to their own men had hired hundreds of Genoese mercenaries, reputedly the best crossbow archers in Europe. The crossbow had become a feared weapon and the best were made using ancient Scythian technology with com­posite bows of horn, sinew and wood. A force attempting to cross an open river would have been decimated by the crossbow bolts, which could penetrate armor. As the invading force was heading towards Gilgenburg (Dobrowno) it was shadowed on the opposite shore by the Teutonic Knights.

The advance of the Polish-Galician and Lithuanian-Rus army was slowed when it sacked Gilgenburg, which gave von Jungingen time to move ahead and establish defensive positions on a terrain of his own choosing between the villages of Grun­wald and Tannenberg. On the morning of 15 July 1410 news reached the encamped and still advancing allies of the unex­pected presence of the enemy nearby. King Wladyslav was on his way to mass, which he continued to attend in spite of urgings to ready his knights for battle. Only Vytautas’ Lithuanians and Rusians were deployed, and only the king’s and the prince’s van­guards were ready for battle. Suspecting a trap in the wooded terrain, VonJungingen kept his men in their defensive positions, which gave Wladyslav sufficient time to complete his prayers. Then donning his armor and inspecting the troops, the king moved to a command post behind his battle lines.

Both armies were now facing each other in battle array when the legendary (but apparently factual) incident of the two swords occurred. Two heralds sent by the Grand Master appeared before King Wladyslav each bearing a sword, which were plunged into the ground before him, as he himself de­scribed in a letter to his wife: "After we had stood and watched each other for a time, the Grand Master sent two swords over to us with this message: "Know you, King and Vytautas, that this very hour we shall do battle with you. For this, we send you these swords for your assistance.’”

Having prepared his position Grand Master VonJungingen was trying to prod Wladyslav and Vytautas to launch the first strike. We do not know the exact battle formations which the two opposing armies assumed, but a typical arrangement would have been for the Polish-Galician and the Lithuanian-Rusians to form three lines of wedge-like formations of heavy cavalry, about 20 deep. We know King Wladyslavs men were placed on the left flank and Vytautas’ Lithuanians and Rusians on the right, with Czech mercenaries in between. The Teutonic Or­der’s ranks would have been arranged in a similar manner, with artillery and crossbow archers shielded behind the ar­mored knights of the Order. It is thought that the Teutonic Order’s force could have been slightly outnumbered by the allies, but what they lacked in numbers they made up by su­perior armament and better-trained troops. Given the length and intensity of the battle, however, it is clear that each side met its match, with a total of some 60,000 men taking part on both sides.

At 9:00 a.m. the front lines of the Order’s heavy cavalry drew back, revealing a long line of cannon, which fired two salvoes but with little effect. The Order had prepared pits cov­ered with earth in front of their central position and the artillery barrage was meant to provoke an enemy cavalry charge into the concealed pits. Grand Prince Vytautas did order a cavalry charge but on the enemy’s left wing, where most of the Teutonic Knights’ elite heavy cavalry was concentrated. They were met by a hail of crossbow bolts, followed by a counter-charge of the armored knights. Unlike the German and other European knighthood the Lithuanians and Rusians wore mainly chain mail or lamellar body armor, with open conical helmets and chain mail neck protection (the ""aventail”).

A fierce and bloody cavalry battle now unfolded involving thousands of men. Reportedly, the crack of breaking lances, the metal sound of swords and battle-axes falling against shields and armor, and the cries of men and horses could be heard miles away. In an hour of hand-to-hand fighting the Grand Prince’s infantry began to give way then broke into flight, followed by the Czech mercenaries whose retreat, however, was halted by Mikolai Troba the Archbishop of Galich, and Royal Vice- Chancellor. As pointed out by the Polish chronicler Dlugosz, only the Rus banners (companies) held their ground against the German and other European knights.

In this battle only the Rusin knights from Smolensk, being under their own three banners, deserved the glory not only in their ef­fort in fighting but also for not deserting. But despite their brave fight, as one standard-bearer was killed without mercy and their colors trampled, the other two (banners) were still fighting as true men and knights should.

The right flank led by King Wladyslav himself had not yet joined the battle and had become threatened by the retreat, but the banners of Rus saved the day. Although one was decimated by the massed Teutonic Knights, the other two successfully cut their way through the enemy ranks and joined Wladyslavs men. Next, the Knight’s left flank charged Wladyslav’s lines which provoked a counter-attack by the Polish and Galician cavalry. The fighting resumed in intensity, and seeing his knights give way Grand Master Ulrich VonJungingen released sixteen more companies fifteen of which were fresh reserves. Circling to his left the Grand Master struck the Poles and Galicians on their right flank which had become exposed by the earlier rout of the Lithuanian-Rusian cavalry. This time the Teutonic Knights made for King Wladyslav s defensive regiments, which were guarding the command center, but failed to locate their exact position since the king s battle flag had been furled to conceal his command post. He was recognized by the knight Lupold von Kokeritz, who couched his lance and charged. King Wla- dyslav spurred his horse to meet the attack but von Kokeritz was knocked off his horse by the royal secretary Olesnicki, and was killed by the King s lance.

In the meantime PrinceVytautas had succeeded in rallying his retreating men, who struck the Order’s rear position. The Knights and their allies were surrounded, and the wounded Grand Master was killed by a lance thrust beneath the helmet. Breaking through the enemy lines the Teutonic Knights began to flee towards their camp near Grunwald and those who reached the camp attempted to form a defensive wagon circle, but to no avail as commented by Dlugosz: “When the enemy realized that they would not escape alive they started to form a circle of defense out of their wagons. But soon even that could not save them from the swords. More were killed here than at any other place on the battlefield.” To the victors’ delight the men discovered casks of wine, but the celebration was short­lived:

Some of them (the wagons) were full of barrels with wine which soon became a good source to quench the thirst of an army of tired and sun-scorched men. All started to scoop up some wine with any means they could, some with their helmets, others with their gloves and even with their shoes. But the Polish King Wla- dyslav in fear of his army becoming drunk and unable to fight anymore, ordered them to smash all the wine barrels. Then all could see a red stream of wine mixed with the blood of the slain men and their horses covering this great battlefield that reached down to the meadows OfTannenburg village.²⁹

Other detachments of the Teutonic Order attempted to escape but were hunted down by light cavalry. The pursuit lasted for several hours and was only called off at 8:00 p.m. About half of the Order’s army lay dead on the battlefield and 14,000 pris­oners were taken, records indicating that only 1427 men made it back to claim their pay. Most of the Order s commanders also perished. Heinrich von Schwelborn, renowned for his haugh­tiness, was caught while fleeing the battlefield and was executed on the spot. Three other senior officers were taken prisoner: Markward von Salzbach, the commander of Brandenburg, Heinrich Schaumburg, the bailiff of Sambia; and Jurge Mar- chalk, the Grand Master s companion. Allwere brought before Prince Vytautas. Arrogant to the last, they proceeded to insult the Prince and cast aspersions on his mother, whereupon Vy­tautas ordered that the Germans be taken out into the field and beheaded.³⁰ When told of Grand Master Ulrich VonJungingens death King Wladyslav expressed “a wonder at so unusual a change of fortune, or rather at the smothering of human haugh­tiness and the feeling of superiority.”³¹ The Polish-Galician and Lithuanian-Rusian armies lost 4,000-5,000 with some 8,000 wounded, but the defeat of the Teutonic Orderwas total and a setback from which it would not completely recover.

After two days’ rest the allies began to march on Marien- burg, the Order’s capital, some 100 km from the battlefield, on the way capturing the fortresses of Hohenstein (Olsztynek), Osterode (Ostrada), and Christburg (Dzierzgon) which did not offer resistance. On hearing of the Tannenberg disaster, Heinrich von Plouen left Switz to reinforce Marienburg, but after a 57 day siege a dysentery epidemic broke out in the Lithu­anian and Rusian camps, and Vytautas withdrew from the siege followed by King Wladyslav, whose men broke camp on 19 Sep­tember and headed home. The withdrawal allowed von Plouen to rebuild his forces with the aid of western “pilgrims” who had responded to his somewhat fraudulent messages for help “against the Saracens,” and “heathens and servants of Satan.”³² Some of the Order’s captured fortresses were recovered and a column ofpilgrims and mercenaries arrived to support the anti­Polish effort. Nothing came of the relief force; it was intercepted by Wladyslavs men at Koronowa and destroyed. The captured pilgrims, who refused to fight for the Order after they saw that they were opposed by other Roman Catholics, were allowed to go free.

The fighting dragged on with von Plouen continuing to send out false requests for help against “infidel Tatars, jailers, heathens, schismatics (Orthodox Christians), monsters and evil spirits, in defense of the oppressed Christians.” The conflict temporarily came to a halt with the Treaty of Torun in 1411, by which the Teutonic Order regained the territory it held before 140, except for Samogitia, which was retained by Grand Prince Jogaila. The conflict continued on and off but the Order was a spent force, no longer able to receive external aid to which it had become accustomed. A new opposition arose against the Knights in the form of the Prussian Union, which challenged the Order’s authority to rule. Formedbythe city burghers, the Prussian Union expelled the Teutonic Order from most of their strongholds by the middle of the 15th century and the Knights could only depend on mercenary troops, particularly Bohe­mians, who had taken part in the Hussite Wars but were now mainly unemployed.³³

With their coffers empty, the Order ceased paying their mercenary troops, who promptly occupied the towns including Marienburg, and proceeded to loot. On 16 August 1456 the Bohemian captain sold the spiritual home of the Teutonic Order to King Casimir IV of Poland, at a bargain price. The Grand Master was ejected from Marienburg castle and the king’s troops together with the Prussian Union entered the great stronghold but the Cityitselfheld out for three more years. The final end of the Teutonic Order in Prussia came with their defeat by Casimir IV in the battle of Zarnowiec in 1462, and four years later on 19 October the second Treaty of Torun was signed, by which every castle in Prussia became the possession of the King of Poland. Also the territory to the west of the Wisla and Nogat rivers was ceded to the Polish Crown and became known as East Prussia, while the Order retained a small portion to be held as a fief of the Polish Crown. The Grand Masterwas forced to dress in rags and appear before Casimir IV, where he swore an oath of fealty in return for Koningsberg, which became the capital of Royal Prussia. In 1525 under the influence of the Protestant Reformation the Knights rejected the Papacyin favor of Luther, and the Order of the Hospital of St. Mary of the Ger­mans ofjerusalem, with its corporate state, disappeared from history.