Index

Abbink, Jon 608

Abner, and Joab 619-20

‘abomination', biblical notion of 615-16

Abram (Abraham) 611

sacrifice of son 617

Abu-Lughod, Lila 395

Abydos, Egypt, First Dynasty burials 464 acephalous society warfare see hunter­gatherers; raiding

Achaemenides, son of Amestris 370

Acts of Ptolemy and Lucius 583, 584

Acy-Romance, France, Iron Age human sacrifice 453

Adrianople, battle of (378 ce) 264, 268 adultery

biblical punishment of women 616 punishment by male members of household 385

by women in Greece 384, 390

Aegospotami, battle of (405 bce) 538

Aeneas 550

and Anchises 676, 681

Africa

Homo erectus 58

Homo sapiens in 58

Later Stone Age 99-104, 104

see also hunter-gatherers; Kalahari

Agathonike, martyr 583

Agathos Daemon, boxer 504

Agia Triada, Crete, depictions of combat 133

Agricola, emperor 249

agriculture

animal husbandry 483

Japan 160, 167, 174-6

Maya 200

see also farmers

Agrippa II, king of Jews 251

Agris, Charente, France, Iron Age helmet 147

Aguateca, Guatemala, Maya site 209

Aijmer, Goran 608

Akhenaton, pharaoh 188, 191

Akhtoy III, pharaoh 345

Akkad, kingdom of 221, 228

culture 460

fall of 230

Alcibiades 542

treatment of wife and dog 392-4

Alesia, battle of (52 bce) 154

Alexander the Great 29, 235, 552

Alexander Severus, emperor 254 Alexandria, destruction of the Serapeion (391

CE) 513, 515, 520-2

Alken Enge, Jutland, Iron Age massacre deposit 448

Allan, William 540

Allen, Danielle 383

Alvarado, Pedro de 214

Amarna Letters, between Babylon and Egypt 234

Amenemhet II, pharaoh 346

Amenhotep II, pharaoh 183, 186 Americas

evidence of violence in Paleoamericans

23, 54

initial colonisation 199

ritualised violence 7

skeletal evidence of health 329 warfare 42, 51, 201

see also Chichen Itza; Maya people;

Yanomamo people

Amestris, wife of Xerxes

mutilation of Masistes' wife 364, 367, 369 reputed sacrifice of children 371 revenge on Apollonides of Cos 371-2 revenge for death of son 370-1 rivalry with Artaynte 363-70

Amfreville, France, Iron Age helmet 148 Amida, Persian siege of (359 ce) 265, 267

Ammianus Marcellinus

battle narrative 264, 265

on siege of Amida 265

Ammonites, violence against women of Gilead 366

Amytis, daughter of Amestris 371

Amytis, wife of Cyrus the Great, and death of eunuch Petasakes 373

Anacreon, on punishment 539

Anchises, and Aeneas 676, 681

Andrieskraal, South Africa, Later Stone Age remains 106

anger, and justice in Athens 383

Anglesea island, Wales, Roman conquest of 329

animal sacrifice 7

Buddhist critique of 598

Egypt 184

Gupta horse 603

see also animal sacrifice, Greece and Rome; human sacrifice

animal sacrifice, Greece and Rome 475-90,539 civic regulations 477, 478, 483 classical vegetarian writers and 475, 477, 485-6

Empedocles' view of 484 ended by Christianity 489, 490, 582 Epicurean view 485 exemption of working oxen 481, 485 Greek gods and 488

Greek sacrificial holocausts 481 images 478

inspection of entrails 479

Porphyry's Abstaining from Meat 486-9 and provision of food 480

Pythagorean view of 484-5

Stoic view 485

Theophrastus on 485-6 victim as channel of communication with gods 480, 481, 483

wild animals 481

animals

compared with slaves 479

and doctrine of substitutions (to excise maladies) 471-2

fights with heroes 637

husbandry 483

and justice (Greece) 482, 484-5, 490 killed in siege of Carthage 243 legal status of 475

legal treatment of as criminals 477, 481 as power symbols in Egypt 343 trial for murder 483

and violence 15

violence by 22, 481, 483

see also hunting

Annals, Chinese philosophical texts 431-2, 435 Antigonids, defeat by Rome 243

Antioch, riot of the statues (387 ce ) 518 Antiochus Epiphanes IV, King 573, 574, 577 desecration of Jewish temple (168 bce ) 512

Antoninus Pius, emperor 252

Antonius, Marcus 407

and trial of Norbanus 405

Antonius, Marcus (Mark Antony) 415

Aphrodisias, Sebasteion (Turkey), monument 672, 673

Aphrodite, goddess of love 484

Apollo, god, on animal sacrifice 486, 487 Apollonides of Cos, Amestris' punishment of 371-2

Appian, on Punic Wars 242, 245

Apuleius 567

The Golden Ass 562

Aqiva, rabbi 574, 575

Arabs

invasions of Roman Empire 257, 259

and wife beating 386

Arausio, battle of (105 bce) 405

Arbela, Mesopotamia 643

Arbousse-Bastide, Tristan 171

archaeology 6

of battlefields 155, 248, 249

changing perspectives of 444-5

and destruction of pagan temples 515 early China 419-20

evidence of climate change 47, 51 evidence from 20, 21

Iron Age

Britain 321, 323, 334, 337

ritual violence 442-3, 457

Japan 161-71, 164, 175

Later Stone Age Africa 101-8, 103

of LBK burials 306

Maya 198-217

projects 198

Mesopotamia 219, 227, 629

Neolithic massacres 299, 301, 304

Roman 247

signatures of violence 164

South America, forager raiding warfare 42

Syria 629

and warfare 42, 43-4, 55

see also bioarchaeology; burials; fortifica­tions; hill forts; settlements; skeletons; skulls; weaponry

archery see arrows and arrowheads; bows and arrows

Archi, Alfonso 640

Ardrey, Robert 99, 109

arenas, amphitheatres

role of 35, 557, 558

seating by social rank 559 see also sport, combat; theatre

Aristides, Aelius 252

Aristophanes

Clouds 392

Lysistrata 390-1

Wasps 380

Aristotle 33

on animals 483

on violence 534, 535

armies

Greek, hoplites 498

size of

Bronze Age 134

Roman 242

see also Chinese army; Roman army; sol­diers; warfare; warriors

Arminius, Germanic leader 155

armour, Bronze Age 130-2, 138 cloak ‘armour' 131 corselets 130

greaves 132

helmets 131

organic (layered linen) 131 scale 130 tin bronze plate 130 two-part plate 130

armour, Japan, wooden breastplates 170

Arras, Yorkshire, Iron Age cemeteries

324

Arrhachion, pancratiast 501-3

arrows and arrowheads 65, 68, 75 arrowheads 101,102,106,119 bronze, Aegean 128

European Neolithic 85, 89, 90, 93

Iron Age 144

Japanese 163, 170

Neolithic China 419 poisoned, San, Kalahari 108, 110 stone, Aegean 128 stone, Korean style 167 wounds from 43, 303, 313 see also bows and arrows

arsenals, Roman fabricenses 271

Artaxerxes I, king of Persia 370

Artaxerxes II, king of Persia 362 and brother Cyrus 374

and Parysatis 375

and wife Stateira 375, 376

Artaynte, daughter of Masistes, rivalry with Amestris 363-70

Artemis, goddess of hunting 481

Arthasastra, treatise on statecraft 687, 697-8

Artoxares the Paphlagonian, eunuch at court of Persia 373

Asconius, and travelling retinues 403

Ashurbanipal, king of Neo-Assyria 363, 469, 471, 642

Ashurnasirpal II, king of Persia 366, 639,

641

punishments of enemies 373

Asoka, Maurya emperor, India 591, 599-600

Asparn-Schletz, Austria, Neolithic massacre site 80, 88, 308-9

Aspeberget, Sweden, rock art 129

Assyria 28, 461

in biblical narratives 612, 621

display of trophy heads 639, 640, 649

New Empire 29, 32

palace reliefs 639, 642, 650, 651 punishment by blinding 373 and substitute king ritual 468 and violence against women 367 see also Mesopotamia; Syria astrology, Mesopotamia 468

prediction of eclipses 469

Athaliah, queen ofJudea 619

Athenian theatre 540-2

comedy 541-2

tragedy 540-1

Athens

Agora Bronze Age burials 133

Bouphonia festival 487

coup (411 bce) 537

and democracy in classical period 535-40, 545

legal system and law courts 536-7, 542-5 and legal speeches 543 and witnesses 543

military campaigns 537, 538

military service 538 murder law 483, 544

Scythian archers 542 slaves 33 and status 544

Thirty Tyrants 537, 545-6 violence, law and community 531-47 as violent city 382, 383, 537, 539-40 weakness of state 535, 544, 547

Atossa, wife of Darius I 362

Atrahasis, poem 633, 651

Atram-hasls, Babylonian creation myth 466, 651

and flood story 467

Augustine, Saint, City of God 584

Augustus Caesar, emperor 248

and expansion of empire 556

and gang violence 415-16

and golden age of Rome 240

and regulation of gladiatorial games 505, 558

and reorganisation of collegia 416

Res Gestae 248

Australia, forager societies 50, 52 axes

Bronze Age 127-8,129

Neolithic 92,118,119, 419

as tools 128

Aztecs see Nahua

Baadsgaard, Aubrey 462

Babylon, rise of kingdom of 233, 234, 460 diplomatic relations with Egypt 234 Kassite kings 234

Babylonian Empire, Old 28

astrologers 468

culture 465

Bacchanalia, suppression (186 bce) 512 Bagapates/Mastabates, eunuch at court of

Persia 374

Bahlam Ajaw, Maya king of Tortuguero 206 Bahrani, Zainab 222

B'ajlaj Chan K'awiil, king of Dos Pilas 208 Balawat, Assyria, Gates of 650

Ballito Bay, Natal, Later Stone Age remains 105

banditry, Rome 562 barbarian tribes

on Chinese frontiers 278 horsemanship 262

as increasing threat to late Roman Empire 261

migrations 36

and siege warfare 268 barbarian women

Greek portrayal of 360

Roman depictions 674

Batavian revolt against Rome 251 Bathsheba, wife of King David 362 Battersea Shield 147, 150 battle narratives, Roman 264 battles

blood and carnage of 692

Maya depictions of 208

as ritual sacrifice for warriors (India) 691-4

Roman 241, 244, 263-6, 555

Roman depictions 654

see also fighting; warfare

Baven, Germany, Bronze Age arrowheads 129 Beckmann, Martin 674

beheading see decapitation; headhunting; heads

Belgium, Neolithic enclosures 92

bells, bronze, Japan 172, 173

Berger, T.

Bhagavadgita 596, 699

Bhagavati Sutra 597

bia, Greek word for violence 476, 533

Bia, personification of violence 534

Bible, New Testament

apocalyptic texts 624

Book of Revelation 578, 624

Epistles 578

Gospel of Mark 577, 578

Bible, Old Testament (Hebrew) 31, 607-27

Amos 366

apocalyptic stories 624

blinding as punishment 373

cultural and social context 607, 609

Daniel 574, 624

and destruction of enemies 612-13

Deuteronomy 612, 614-15, 617 divine sanction for violence 618, 626 divine violence 622-5

Exodus 617

Ezekiel 367

Hosea 366

individuals in civil legal codes 613-16 and Israelites' claim to territory 611-12 Jeremiah 617, 622, 623

Joshua 611

Leviticus 613

Micah 617

Nehemiah 376

and neighbouring kings 621-2

Noah myth (Genesis) 467

post-biblical intolerance 625

religious justification for violence 7, 608-9 representations of violence 607, 609-11,

626

on royal courts 362

story of Jezebel 368

violence of kings 618-21

violence by patriarchs and foundational figures 611-13

violence by priests and prophets 616-18

Bible, Old Testament (Hebrew) (cont.) Yhwh 615, 621, 623 see also Bible, New Testament;

Christianity; Judaism; patron deities bioarchaeology 114, 304, 323

Bronze Age 132-4 evidence of health 43, 338 see also skeletons

birds of prey, corpses on battlefield left for 643, 644

bishops, Christian 518, 522, 525 negotiators in late antiquity 274

Bisitun inscription, Darius I's 366, 374

Blok, Anton 608

‘blood money' 85 bodyguards, Roman elites 402 illegally armed 407, 410 military veterans 407 payment to gangs 413 for travelling 403

bog bodies, Iron Age 450-3, 458

Britain 327

Lindow Man 451 Oldcroghan Man (Ireland) 451 as ritual execution 327, 451 torture and dismemberment 451, 452

Boii, Celtic people, mass deportation of 246 Bonampak, Mexico, Mayan murals 198, 208 Book of Documents, Zhou dynasty China 422-3 Book of Songs, Zhou dynasty China 421-2 ‘Climb the Wooded Hill' 421 ‘No Wraps' 422 ‘Sixth Month' 421 ‘They Beat Their Drums' 422 ‘Waves of the Pan' 422

Bottero, Jean 471

Boudicca, British Celtic queen, rebellion 249, 334

bows and arrows 65, 68, 75 adopted by Maya 212 Bronze Age 119, 128-30 Neolithic 119, 302 Roman use of 263 San, Kalahari 111, 113 see also arrows and arrowheads; spears boxing, Greece 496, 497-8, 500-1 hand bindings 500 rules and referees 500 submission 500

Brading villa, Isle of Wight, Roman Britain, body in well 336

Brahmanism (Hinduism) 590, 591-7 asrama stages of life 592

concept of cakravartin (paramount king) 592

dharma in 591

Manavadharmasastra text 594

varna hereditary class 591

Brastad, Sweden, Bronze Age weapons 127

Britain 320-39

age and gender differences 338

Iron Age 321, 324-9

figurines 149

hill forts 152

oppida 152

see also Maiden Castle

Roman 329-38

indigenous victims 335 military activity 332 social changes 332 urban centres 323, 332, 335

Roman invasion (43 ce) 249, 323, 332,333 Brodbeck, Simon 698

bronze

mechanical properties of 123, 136 sheet metalworking 130, 138

Bronze Age

combat sports in Greece 496-7

early cities 27

emergence of elites 26 fortifications 26, 120, 134-6, 139 initial Bronze Age (IBA) 118-20 osteoarchaeology 132-4 specialised weaponry 26-7, 120-30, 138 armour 130-2 shields 121-2 swords 122-6

warfare in Europe 117-39

bronze objects, Chinese, in Japan 170,

173

Brown, Peter 36

The World of Late Antiquity 257, 274

Brown, Shelby 665

Buckley, William 52

Buddha (Gautama) 33

Buddhism 590

benevolence 598

bodhisattva (Buddha-to-be) 599

in China 293-4

and concept of cakkavatti (paramount king) 598

dharma in 597

Jatakas 599

and kingship 598-600

and laws of rebirth 590

non-violence 589

power of monasteries 293

uprisings 294

Buffers Bay, South Africa, Later Stone Age remains 106

Burch, Ernest 52 burials 43, 54

Bronze Age, Athens 133

Bronze Age warriors 139 chambered tombs 89 evidence of human sacrifice 419 with grave goods

Mesolithic 71, 73

Mesopotamia 227 Neanderthal 64

Royal Cemetery at Ur 461

Japan

jar coffins 167

Yayoi warrior graves 168-9

Late Palaeolithic 65, 75, 189

LBK rituals 306, 311

Maya 198

Mesolithic 70

Neolithic cemeteries 83, 299, 304-6 non-normative Roman Britain 336, 339 not given for those killed in warfare 54, 67 and ritual slaughter of attendants 227, 420, 460

see also burials, Iron Age; cemeteries; funerary rites; mass graves burials, Iron Age

chariots 145, 146, 326,327

children, Britain 322

Claudian invasion of Britain 334 and evidence of human sacrifice 227, 453-4 grave goods 322

hill forts 325, 446, 454

performative violence 326

slave (Wales) 328, 449

weapons in 145-7, 157

Burkert, W.

Homo Necans 478 Burna-Buriash, king of Babylon 234 Burnett, A. P. 541

Bushmen see San hunter-gatherers

Cadbury Castle, Somerset, Iron Age battlefield 155

Caepio, Quintus Servilius 405

Calakmul, Mexico, Maya site 204

Calgacus, Caledonian chieftain 249 California

deaths of women in warfare 55 forager societies 50

Callinicum, Syria, attack on synagogue (388 CE ) 513

Campbell, Brian 244

Canaan, Israelites' conquest of 611

Cancuen, Guatemala, Maya site 209 cannibalism

by animals 489 during sieges 267

Cape Province, South Africa, shell middens 109

captives

Chinese massacres of 287 execution of 67

Maya 208, 215

for human sacrifice, Maya 201 Neo-Assyrian taking of 236 Persian treatment of 268 see also prisoners of war

Capture of Joppa, Egyptian story 193

Caracalla, emperor, public sculpture 676-8, 677

Carn Brea, Cornwall 84

Carthago (New Carthage), Roman capture of 242

Casilinum, battle of (554 ce ) 263

Caska Veles, North Macedonia, Bronze Age remains 133

Cataline Conspiracy (63 bce) 402

Catherwood, Frederick 198

cavalry

Chinese army 287, 289

Persian Empire 262

Roman army 246, 262, 263

Ceibal, Guatemala, Pre-classic Maya site 202, 203, 215

Celtic culture 441-2

‘cult of the head' 442, 454-7 cemeteries

Iron Age 155, 324

Mesolithic 69, 70

Neolithic 83, 90, 304-6

Roman Britain 323

Ur Royal 227, 461-4, 472 see also burials; mass graves

Cetatea Veche, Romania, Bronze Age site 130, 135

Champoton, Mexico, Maya site 210, 213 chariots

Iron Age 145,146, 326,327

Roman races 560-1

charitable activities, Christian church and

273, 274

Chariton, Callirhoe (Greek novel) 394

Chatters, James 23

chemical warfare, Persian use of sulphur fumes 266

Chemosh, deity of Moab 612, 617, 623

Chi You, Chinese warrior god 292

Chichen Itza, Mexico 209, 216

skull racks 209

Spanish at 213

children

biblical ritual killing of 617-18

evidence of abuse, Roman Britain 335 evidence of deficiency diseases 337 and infanticide (China) 293

Iron Age burials, Britain 322

Late Palaeolithic burial 65

Mesolithic burials 71

sacrificial victims, Maya 202, 203

as victims in Later Stone Age (Africa)

108

China 277-94, 418-36

baoli (violence) 277

Buddhism 293-4

civil wars 281

Daoism 292

early cities 27

Eastern Jin dynasty 281

equivocal view of war and heroism 418, 432, 436

ethnic conflicts 281

Former (Western) Han dynasty 279, 283

Han dynasty 29

and claims to legitimacy 284, 433-4, 436 end of empire 36

Later (Eastern) Han dynasty 279 legitimate violence 277

Neolithic defensive enclosures 25, 419 northern frontiers 279, 286 north-south division 280

private armies 286, 289-90

Qin dynasty 436

fall of 433

First Emperor's campaigns of conquest 278, 281, 286

justification for wars of unification 432-4 massacres of captives 287

terracotta army 32

revenge as duty 434-6

Shang dynasty 28, 282

oracle bones 420

Zhou depiction of 422-3

Spring and Autumn period 424

Sui dynasty 281

Three Kingdoms period 280, 283

treatment of warfare in philosophical texts 425-32

Warring States period 278, 282, 285, 292, 424 wars of unification 279, 283, 285, 424 Western Jin dynasty 281, 283, 284 Yellow Emperor myth 292

Zhao kingdom 287

Zhou empire 29, 282, 421-4

Eastern Zhou 424

end of Western Zhou 424 overthrow of Shang 422-3 see also Chinese army; warfare, China;

Zheng, emperor

Chinese army 285-92 barbarian elites in 291 cavalry 287, 289 conscription 280, 286, 288 divination 292 hereditary soldiery 290 incorporation of defeated enemies 291 infantry 286

Later Han adaptations 288-9 manpower problems 290-1 mercenaries 281

and private armies 289-90 professionalisation 288 and training 286, 287, 288 Warring States mobilisation 285

Christ, Matthew 544

Christianity, in late antiquity 512

bishops 274, 518, 522, 525

and classical animal sacrifice 489, 490, 582 and conversions of Jews of Minorca 525-7 Diocletian's edicts against 581-2 emphasis on peacefulness 519, 522 and freedom under Constantius 582 and heretical groups 583 impact on Roman warfare 273-4 intra-Christian conflicts 523 and martyrdom 521, 523, 524, 577-84 moral condemnation of violence 519,

524-7

New Prophecy group 584 persecution 522, 524, 578-81, 582 and post-biblical intolerance 625 and sacred forms of violence 519 understandings of martyrdom 582-3 use of violent language 519

Cicantakhama the Sagartian 366

Cicero, Marcus Tullius

and Clodius 412, 413 on gladiators 505 personal bodyguards 402

and Pompey 410, 412

prosecution of Verres 568

on slaves 565

and trial of Norbanus 405

Cimbri tribe 449

Cinna, Lucius Cornelius 247

circumcelliones, Donatists 523

circumcision, Egypt 190, 192 Cirencester, Gloucestershire (Corinium

Dubunnorum), female Roman British burials 335

cities, earliest 27

and defence 30

Maya 199, 206

Mesopotamia 27, 30, 219, 221-2, 227 see also Athens; Constantinople; Rome; settlements

city gates, display of trophy heads at 640, 649

civilians

compulsory employment to maintain Roman army 272

and sieges 241, 243, 267

soldiers' violence towards 272

Clarke, John 657

Claudius, emperor 332,333, 556, 559 monument 672, 673

Clearchus of Sparta 376, 537

Clement, Christian philosopher 584 clergy

Diocletian's edicts for arrest of 581 negotiators in late antiquity 274 see also priests

clientela relationship, Rome 401, 566 climate change

as cause of warfare 47, 51, 315 environmental crisis (third millennium bce ) 356

Little Ice Age 47, 51

Clodius Pulcher, Publius, tribune 403,

411-13, 414

and Cicero 412

The Clouds, comedy 541

Coarelli, Filippo 655

Coba, Mexico, road to Yaxuna 207

Coelius, Sextus, public scribe 414

Cogan, Mordechai 367

Cohen, David 384

Cohen, E.

coins

Iron Age

depiction of warriors 143, 150 depiction of weapons 148

representation of Indian kings 603

Colchester (Camulodunum), evidence of Boudiccan rebellion 334

collective violence 12, 39

murder of single dangerous male 53

Neolithic massacres as 315

seealso gang violence; inter-group violence; intra-societal violence; massacres; warfare

collegia (local community associations), Rome 401, 411-12, 413

Augustan reforms 416

Collins, John J. 612, 624

Columbus, Batholomew 213

Comalcalco, Mexico, Maya site 206

Commodus, emperor 254 communities

and boundaries 84

and identity 84

size of Neolithic 95

see also neighbours

community distress, and prehistoric violence 108

Confucius 33

Analects 426

and Annals 431

intellectual heirs of 427-8

Connell, R. W. 690, 698

conscription

Chinese army 280, 286, 288

Roman army 270-1

violence during 271

Constantina (Tella), siege of 267

Constantine, emperor 273

Arch of 678-81, 679

conversion to Christianity 512, 514 and toleration of Donatists 524 Constantinople

attack by Goths on (378 ce) 268 foundation of 257

Persian siege of (626 ce) 259, 269 popular riots 518, 562

Constantius, emperor, end of persecution of Christians 582

Copan, Guatemala, Maya kingdom 204, 208, 216

Cordoba, Francisco Hernandez de 213

Corinth, Isthmian games 499

Coriolanus, Gaius Marcius, legend of 240 Cornelius Scipio Barbatus, Lucius 551 Cornell, Tim 239

Cornesti-Iarcuri, Romania, Bronze Age fortifications 120

cosmology

Egyptian concept of ma'at (cosmic order) 186, 351, 356

Indian 688, 692, 696

Iron Age 441, 446, 457

Mesopotamian 466

Cotta, Lucius Aurelius 405

Crete

‘Boxer Rhyton' 496

defensive Bronze Age settlements 135 Crickley Hill, Gloucestershire 84 Crowley, Jason 539

Ctesias of Cnidus

on Achaemenid Persia court 362, 372

Persica 373

on rivalry of Parysatis and Stateira 375 story of Amestris' revenge on Apollonides of Cos 371-2

story of Amestris' revenge for death of son 370-1

Cuello, Belize, Maya mass burial 203 Cultural Hegemony, theory of 253

Cursing of Akkad, Mesopotamian text 230 cylinder seals 632, 646-8

animals and heroes on 637

Mari 644, 647

Cyrus, king of Persia 374, 621, 622

Dacia, Roman wars against 252, 556, 672 Dadusha, king of Eshnunna 644

Daimond, Jared 6

Dalhanemi, king 598

Danda, ‘Punishment' 594

Danebury hill fort, Hampshire 443

Iron Age burials 329

Daoism, and Way of Great Peace sect 292 Darius I, king of Persia 362

Bisitun inscription 366, 374

Darius II, king of Persia 363, 365, 372 Dart, Raymond 99

Darwin, Charles, On the Origin of Species 39 David, king of Israel 362, 610, 620

De Zilk, Netherlands, Bronze Age site 130 Deacon, Hilary, and Janette Deacon 109 death rates

acephalous society warfare 41

correlation between murder and death in combat 253

Jomon period, Japan 176

warfare 41-2

death tolls

Chinese full-scale warfare 287 interpretation of numbers 245, 247

Jewish War 250

in Roman wars 241, 242, 245

Social War (Italy) 247

Debruck, Hans 241 decapitation

of enemies (Mesopotamia) 638-43, 649

by Germans 252

Iron Age deposited remains 450

as punishment in Egypt 352

Roman Britain 336

see also executions; headhunting; heads; mutilation

Decius, emperor, and Christians 580, 583 defence

early cities 30

by states against nonstate peoples 28,

30

see also enclosures; fortifications

Delphi, Pythian games 499, 503

Dendra, Greece, Bronze Age armour 130 Denmark

Iron Age 132, 147, 448

Mesolithic burial sites 70

Neolithic endemic violence 91 deportation

Chinese forcible migrations 291 mass Roman 246 depositions, Iron Age bog bodies 448, 450-3 watery contexts 448 weapons 147-8, 158, 447-9 wooden boats 448

The Destruction of Miletus, tragedy 540 dharma (pious duty) 590, 591, 597, 686 Didius, Titus 405

Digha Nikaya, Mahasudassana Sutta

598

Dillon, Sheila 674

Dio Cassius 248

Diocletian, emperor 270

anti-Christian edicts 512, 581-2, 583 Dionysius, on Veii 240

Dirce, Punishment of 660 dismemberment

bog bodies 451, 452

of enemies 632, 638

Dlamini, Nonhlanhla 106, 113

DNA

and archaeological evidence of infections 43

potential for research 51

see also genetics

Dnjepr Rapids, Ukraine, Mesolithic cemeteries (Vasilyevka) 69

Dobe !Kung, murder rate 100 dogs, as scavengers 368

Dolabella, Publius Cornelius 415 domestic violence 14

Athens 539

beating of parents 392

Greece 380-2,381, 398

evidence for 396-8

see also women

Donatists, Christian schismatic 523

Dos Pilas, Guatemala, Maya site 208 Dossey, Leslie 397

Dottenbichl, Germany, Iron Age-Roman battlefield 154

Douglas, Mary 476

Drake, Harold 513 duels, between warring champions 189, 194, 498, 509

Duilius, Caius 551

Dunbabin, Katherine 663

Dunidam, Jeroen 362 Dura-Europos, Roman fortress, Persian capture of (256 ce ) 266

Eannatum, king, and Stele of the Vultures 634, 635, 644

Ebla, Syria, display of trophy heads 639, 640 Eckstein, Arthur, Mediterranean Anarchy,

Interstate War, and the Rise of Rome 239 eclipses (solar, lunar, planetary),

Mesopotamian kings and 469

Edessa 272

siege of 267

troops billeted in 272

Edington Burtle, Somerset, Bronze Age site 130 Egami, Namio 162

Egnatius Rufus, and urban uprising 415 Egypt 28, 179-95, 342-58

acculturation of foreigners 192, 347 administrative audits 355

animals as power symbols 343

annexation by Rome 248 bureaucracy (‘civil service') 344, 350, 357 capture of foreigners for labour 347 combat ritual and festivals 183-7 concept of ma'at (cosmic order, stability) 351, 356

concept of the Restorer 358

contempt for enemies 344

crisis at end of Old Kingdom (c.

raids 349

sieges 349

frontier defences 350

funerary ritual of human sacrifice 464, 473 hunting scenes 342

and Israel 622

military forces 348-50 recruitment and training 349

Naqada I period 181

Naqada II period 187

Naqada III period 188

Netherworld Books 186, 190 punishments 351-2

rituals of execration 185, 191, 346

sphere of influence 345-7 state violence 342, 350-2 violence in afterlife 355-6 violence among the gods 352-4 see also pharaohs; warfare, Egypt

Ejsbol, Denmark, Iron Age weapons deposit 448

El Djem, Tunisia, Domus Sollertiana mosaic 663

El Mirador, Maya pyramid site 203

Elijah, prophet 618

elites

emergence in Bronze Age 26

Japan 173, 175

Mesopotamian military 227, 231 and private armies in Later Han China 289-90, 291

punishment of 33

and ritual slaughter of attendants 227, 460 and warfare 36

and warriors 137, 138 see also elites, Roman elites, Roman

and intermediaries with gangs 414 and popular support 404-6, 407-8 provision of games 509-10, 558 punishments 564

Empedocles, on animals and justice 484 enclosures

communal construction of 83, 96

and defences 84, 92, 94 evidence of attacks on 84, 94 Neolithic 25, 83, 92

see also fortifications; hill forts

Enki, Babylonian god 466, 467 Enmetena, king of Lagash 224, 228

Enna-Dagan, king of Mari 644

Entremont, Provence, stone monuments 454-5, 456

Enuma elis, creation epic 466 Ephesus, council of (431 ce) 524

Epic of the Creation, Mesopotamia 633,

651

Epicureans, on animal sacrifice 485 Epirus, Roman conquest (167 bce) 245 Esarhaddon, king of Babylon 469, 471 ethnic cleansing see deportation ethnography

and evidence of warfare 45 of forager societies 49-50 and intra-societal violence 52 study of Kalahari San 100-1

Etsuji, Japan, Yayoi settlement site 171

Eulau, Saxony-Anhalt

arrowheads 119

Mesolithic ambush site 70

Neolithic mass grave 80

Eunapius, pagan writer 520

Euripides, Melanippe myth 390

Europe

Bronze Age warfare and weaponry 117-39 Iron Age 142-58, 441-58

Neolithic period 79-97, 86

Roman army in 153-5, 157 warrior ideology 7

Eusebius

Church History 582

on Diocletian edicts against Christians 581 Martyrs of Palestine 582

Eutherius of Tyana 524 evolution, warfare and 47 excarnation

Late Bronze Age 457

Neolithic 314 executions and death penalties

ad bestias (Roman amphitheatre) 493-4, 564 Athens 539

burial alive 371, 420, 453

of captives 67, 366 for cowardly soldiers 694 flaying alive 366, 374 impalement (of enemies) 649 in Indian texts 600, 601 of poisoners in Persia 377 see also executions and death penalties, Egypt; punishments executions and death penalties, Egypt

beheading 185, 352

of criminals 185

death by fire 185, 352 hanging inverted of defeated enemies

186

impalement 188,191, 352 public 195

throwing to the crocodiles 352 exile, as punishment for elite Romans 564

Fabius Maximus 245

Fabius, Quintus (Maximus Rullianus), Tomb of 665

Faqing, Buddhist rebel leader (515 ce) 294 Faraoskop, South Africa, Later Stone Age remains 106, 107, 112

farmers

group size 95 pastoralists 113 relations with forager societies 49, 55,

82-5

social structure 95-6

see also agriculture

Faulkner, Neil 239

Fei River, Battle of (383 ce) 284, 291

Fertile Crescent, cities 27

feuding 53-4

Mesolithic 94

see also inter-group violence; intra-societal violence

Fiave-Carera, Italy, Bronze Age site 130 fighting

bodily techniques, pre-Bronze Age

118

close-quarters sword 124 collaborative 136

Bronze Age 122 face-to-face 69 lines of battle, Bronze Age 121 and single combat (monomachia) 189, 498, 509

techniques 125-6, 136

see also battles; sport; warfare

Filippokva, Russia, Iron Age weapon burials (kurgans) 146,150

Final (Late) Palaeolithic period 58 burials 65, 75, 189 hunter-gatherer violence in 65-6

Fisher, Nick 382, 383

Fiskerton, Lincolnshire, Iron Age site 449 Fitzgerald, James 684, 695

Flaminius, Gaius, agrarian law (232 bce) 404 food, as weapon, Egyptian warfare 191 forager societies see hunter-gatherers fortifications

and archaeology 43

Bronze Age 26, 134-6, 139

initial (IBA) 120

Italy 135

Mycenae 134

Chinese frontier 286

Iron Age 151-3

oppida 151-3, 441

Japan, Inland Sea 172

Maya 198, 207, 210

Mesopotamian palaces and city walls 227 see also hill forts; oppida; settlements Foucault, Michel 13

Fowler, Michael 361

France

increased Neolithic violence 93

see also Gaul; Gournay-sur-Aronde;

Marmesse; Massalia; Ribemont-sur- Ancre; Saint-Cesaire

Frank, Tenney 238

Frankfurter, David 624

Fravartish, of Media 366

Fregellae, near Rome, terracotta reliefs 655-6 frescoes (wall paintings)

chamber tomb 665-6

Greece 496 mythological scenes 657-60, 659, 660, 669 Pompeii 656-60

The Frogs, comedy 541 funerary monuments, Roman

allegorical 668

depictions of war and violence 665-71 sarcophagi 667-71, 668, 670 funerary rites

Iron Age Britain 322, 339

LBK 306, 311

and ritual violence 457

Roman Britain 323

see also burials

Galba, Servius Sulpicius 245

Gallic Wars

Caesar's account of 156,157, 247-8

death toll 247

Gallienus, emperor, and Christians 581 Gambash, Gil 251

gang violence, early imperial Rome 415-16 gang violence, late republican Rome 400-16 employed by Marius 408 and intermediaries 414

at public assemblies 414

Sulpicius and 408-10

Gat, Azar 6

Gaul, Iron Age 147, 450, 457 human sacrifice 453

Julius Caesar on 143, 446 sanctuaries 449-50 see also Gallic Wars

Gaza, destruction of Marnas temple 515 Gebel Sahaba see Jebel Sahaba

Geller, Stephen 626

Gellius, Gnaeus, as intermediary 414 gender relations 32

behavioural differences 51

and sexual dimorphism 51

see also women

genetics

evidence for Neolithic population migrations 91-3 and warfare 48, 50-1

‘warrior gene' 51

see also DNA

Germany

and Rome 143, 155, 248, 252, 254 violence of tribal fighters 249 see also Halberstadt; Herxheim;

Heuneburg; Manching; Talheim; Tollense

Gessert, Genevieve 669

Gibbon, Edward 36, 252

Gilgamesh, epic of 31, 221, 222, 467 wrestling 494

Gilmore, David, model of machismo violence 382

gladiators 505, 506, 508, 509, 558 in domestic mosaics 661-5, 663, 664 on funerary friezes 666, 667 in Roman elite retinues 403 see also sport, combat, Roman

Glauberg, Germany, Iron Age statue 149 Gloucester, Roman British mass grave 337 Goffart, Walter, on barbarian settlement of

Roman Empire 258

Goths 263, 268

sacking of Rome (410 ce) 268 Gournay-sur-Aronde, France animal sacrifice 450

Iron Age weapon deposits 148, 450 Gracchus, Gaius, bodyguards 407 Gracchus, Tiberius 414

agrarian legislation 406-7

Gradiste Idjos, Serbia arrowheads 129

Bronze Age remains 117

Grauballe Man, bog body (Jutland) 452 Gravettian period 58, 64, 75

Greece, ancient

animal sacrifice 475-90

Archaic Age 496

athletic games 35, 495, 499 changing ideas of violence 534, 546 combat sport 496-504 early Bronze Age fortifications 120 endemic violence 382, 383, 398 festivals for gods 499 gymnasia 499, 500

and honour-and-shame nexus 14,

384-6

and myths of gods and heroes 34,

534

violence against women 14, 380-98 in literature 387-94 triggers for 396

warfare 552

see also Athens; domestic violence

Greek language

bia (violence) 476, 533

hybris (arrogance) 533

thusia and sphagia (sacrifice) 477 Grosseibstadt, Germany, Iron Age weapon burial 146

Grotte des Enfants, Liguria, Late Palaeolithic burials 65

Gundestrup Cauldron 145, 148,149 Guti people, as threat to Akkad 230

hagiography, Christian 516 Hahn, Johannes 512 Halberstadt, Germany

Neolithic mass grave 80, 89, 310-11, 312 victims as non-local 310

Hallstatt scabbard 145, 148, 149

Hambledon Hill, Dorset 84 Hammurabi, king

conquests 233

Law Code stele 223, 225

Han Feizi, Chinese philosopher 430-1 Hanina ben Teradion, rabbi 574, 577 Hanson, Victor David 238

Harries, Jill 568

Harris, William V., War and Imperialism in Republican Rome 239, 244

Hashiguchi, Tatsuya 166 Hathigumpha inscription, India 597 headhunting

Celtic ‘cult of the head' 442, 454-7

stone monuments, Provence 454-5, 456

see also decapitation

heads, severed

of enemies 632, 638-45, 640

ritual treatment of 643, 650

see also skulls; trophy body parts Hebrews, and Garden of Eden 34 helmets 131

boar's tusk 131

bronze sheet 131

horned 132

Iron Age 144

decorated 147

Waterloo bridge 147, 151

Helvetii tribe 247

Hephaestus, son of Hera 388

Hera, wife of Zeus 388

‘Punishment of 389

Heraclius, emperor 259

Herman, Gabriel 537, 544 hero-god, combat with monster, motif of 354 Herodotus, Histories

Persian royal women 360, 362, 372 story of Amestris and Artaynte 363-70 on theatre 540

heroism

Chinese view of 418, 432, 436

Indian view of 684-702

Herxheim, Germany, Neolithic site 91,

305, 314

Hesiod, on animals and justice 489 Heuneburg, Germany, hill fort 151, 152, 441 hill forts

Bronze Age defensive 120, 135, 151 destroyed by fire 135

hill forts, Iron Age 151, 152, 443-7 burials 325, 327, 329, 446, 454 complex entrances 447 display of trophies at gates 446, 454 evolution of 444 lack of water 444, 446 shortcomings for defence 444-5, 447 symbolic interpretation 443, 445

Hinduism see Brahmanism

Hirabaru, Japan, Yayoi tomb 173 Hirschlanden, Germany, Iron Age statue 148 Historian's Records (Ship), Chinese text 432, 434 Hittite empire 28

Hjortspring, Denmark, Iron Age weapons deposit 147, 448

Hobi, Japan, shell midden 164

Hochdorf, Germany, Iron Age weapon burial

145, 157

Hodgson, Dawn 462

Hohlenstein-Stadel, Germany, Mesolithic skull nest 73

Hokkaido, Japan, hunter-gatherers 160

Holocene period 58

Homer

on athletic events 496, 500

Iliad 32, 497, 534

violence against women 387-9

Odyssey 32, 533, 534

homicide (murder)

Chinese terminology 431 and deaths in combat 253 murder in Old Testament 31 by slaves of owner (Rome) 568 as tool of political intrigue (China) 430-1 Homo, earliest species 58

Homo erectus 58

evidence of violence 59-60

Homo heidelbergensis 58

evidence of violence 59-60

Homo neanderthalensis 58

see also Neanderthals

Homo sapiens 58, 59

honour cultures 10 honour-and-shame nexus in Greece 14, 384-6

and level of abuse 394-6

and machismo 382

and masculinity 10, 382, 394-6

and women 11

Horemheb, pharaoh 184

Hornish Point, Scotland, Iron Age sacrificial burial 453

horse pits, staked, Maya use of 214 horses

in Iron Age warfare 145

see also cavalry

Horus, Egyptian falcon god 344 and Seth-animal myth 353-4

Hulu caves, Nanjing, China, Pleistocene skulls 60

human rights, in classical philosophy 490 human sacrifice 7, 35, 419

Iron Age, evidence from burials 453-4

Iron Age Britain 327, 453 bog bodies 327

Maya 198, 210

of captives 201 children 202, 203 mass graves of victims 201, 203, 208, 210

Neolithic China 419

ritual killing of servants and burial with elites 227

Rome 35

Shang dynasty China 420 see also animal sacrifice

human sacrifice, Mesopotamia 460-73 killing of royal retinue at death of kings 460, 461-4

substitute king ritual 460, 468-72 humans

debate on nature of 99 violence as innate in 6, 19

Humphreys, Anthony 109

Huns, and Roman warfare 262

Hunter, Fraser 143 hunter-gatherers

avoidance of conflict 21, 301 ethnographers' encounters with 49-50 evidence of violence (Palaeolithic and Mesolithic) 58-76, 82

explorers' accounts of 50

Final (Late) Palaeolithic 65-6

in Japan 160

Mesolithic 58 raiding warfare 40, 41, 48-50 relations with farmers 49, 55, 82-5 social structure 82, 94 and territory 93, 109, 300 Upper Palaeolithic 64-5 see also San hunter-gatherers, Kalahari hunting 35, 539

in Egyptian rock art 342

Greek literature on 481, 483

India 601

Neanderthal risky strategies 61, 75 Roman arena spectacles 559 warfare equated with, in Egyptian depictions 181, 182-3, 195

Husain, Irfan 395

Hyksos, Theban attack on 193

Hypatia, philosopher 513

Iberia

Bronze Age shields 121 hilltop defensive fortifications 120 see also Spain

Ignatius, Letter to the Romans 583

Illerup Adal, Jutland, Iron Age weapons deposit 448

Inanna, Babylonian goddess 472

Inarus of Lybia 370

India

Buddhist non-violence 589

India (cont.)

and concept of non-violence 7, 589, 604 distinction between force and violence 590,

597, 604-5

early cities 27

heroism and warrior identity 684-702 ideal of heroism 685

Jainist non-violence 589

kingship and violence 589-605 political treatises 600-1 political violence 589

religious traditions of non-violence and renunciation of violence 589

Vedic texts 32

see also Brahmanism (Hinduism); Buddhism; Jainism; kings and king­ship; Mahabharata; Santi Parvan; war­fare, India; warrior ideology

India, modern northern 395 infanticide, religious meaning, China 293 injuries

accidental 68, 74

archaeological evidence of battle wounds 43, 54, 204

assistance and care for 62, 64, 75 blunt-force trauma 68, 69 healed 108, 307, 324 parry fractures of ulna 68, 69 penetrative weapons 62, 65, 66, 69, 75 Mesolithic 68, 70

Neolithic arrows 303

traumatic bone lesions 101,108

see also skeletons; skulls inscriptions

Chinese steles 283, 432-3

Moabite Mesha stele 612

Roman 551

Zhou dynasty bronze vessels 423 see also inscriptions: Indian, Maya, Mesopotamian (below); pictorial representations

inscriptions, Indian 599-600

Allahabad pillar 601

Hathigumpha 597 inscriptions, Maya hieroglyphic 205, 206,

216

emblem glyphs 206

Hieroglyphic Stairways 208

inscriptions, Mesopotamian 219, 231

Assyrian 641

steles 223, 225, 632, 646

stele of Dadusha 644

stele of Sargon 634, 636, 643

Stele of the Vultures 224, 228, 634, 635, 643, 644

violence and warfare in 221, 224 Instruction of Merikare, Egyptian fiction 194 inter-group violence 51, 89

Iron Age 445

Britain 325

Gaul 450, 457

Late Palaeolithic 66

Mesolithic 67, 69, 75, 113, 301

Neolithic 89-90, 300

interpersonal violence 9, 14, 31

among forager societies 40

Neanderthal 62

prehistoric Japan 164

skeletal evidence of 59, 325, 337

see also domestic violence; fighting; homicide

intra-societal violence 40, 523

ambush 70

Late Palaeolithic 66

management of 40

and warfare 52-3

Inupiaq people, Alaska 50, 52

Ireland, Bronze Age shields 121, 122

Iron Age

early cities 27

improved weaponry 28

see also hill forts; Iron Age, Britain; Iron Age, in Europe

Iron Age, Britain 321, 324-9

hill forts 152

slaves 328

Iron Age, in Europe 142-58

battlefields 153-5

culture and society 441-2, 446

evidence of violence 142, 157 fortifications 151-3

Gaulish sanctuaries 449-50

ritual violence 441-58

and Roman armies of conquest 157

scale of violence 142-4

symbolism of weaponry 143, 145, 157, 443 weaponry 143-5, 150-1 written descriptions 156 see also hill forts

Iron Gorge (Gates), Serbia, Lepenski Vir and Vlassac Mesolithic sites 69

Isara, battle of the River (146 bce) 245

Ishizaki Magarita, Japan, Yayoi settlement site 171

Israel, kings of 618-21

Itazuke, Japan, Yayoi settlement site 171 lunius Brutus, Decimus, and first gladiatorial spectacle 504

Iximche, Guatemala, Maya fortification 210

Jainism 590

dharma in 597

and laws of rebirth 590

non-violence 589

on warfare 597-8

James, Simon 143

Japan

archaeological research trends 161-3 ecological diversity 160

Kojiki and Nihon shoki texts 32

Japan, prehistoric 6, 160-77

agriculture and violence 160, 167, 174-6 archaeological record of violence 163-71, 164, 175

hunter-gatherers 160

Jomon period 160, 174

skeletal trauma 164-6

population increases 174, 175 settlements 163, 171-2 warrior graves 168-9

Yayoi period 160, 175, 176

skeletal trauma 166-8

warfare 162

Jebel Sahaba, Sudan, Late Palaeolithic Qadan culture burials 66, 189

Jehu, king of Israel 619

Jephthah 617

Jericho 611

Jerusalem 622

Jesus Christ 34

death of 577-8, 617

and imitation of suffering and death

578

Jewish War (66-73 ce) 250-1

and siege of Masada 250

Jews

conversion, Minorca 525-7 suicide by 577

violence against in late antiquity 515 willingness to endure martyrdom

572

see also Judaism

Jezebel, queen 368

Joab, and Abner 619-20

John Chrysostom, bishop 518

Josephus

account of Jewish War 250-1 on martyrdom 574

Joshua 611

Joshua the Stylite, chronicler 267, 272 Judah 611

Judaism

and book of Daniel 574 martyrdom in 573-7 rabbinic literature 574-6

and theory of martyrdom 575

see also Bible

Judea

kings of 618-21

Ptolemaic control over Palestine 573 Julian, emperor 269

persecution of Christians 523

Julius Caesar

account of Gallic Wars 156,157, 247-8 assassination 248 on battles 154, 264

on construction of oppida 152

and Dolabella 415 on Gauls 143, 446, 450

use of popular violence 410-11

just war

Chinese notions of 281-5

Mesopotamian concept of 224

Justinian, emperor 259, 273

elimination of religious dissent 515 and Nika riot 518

Juvenal, Satires 566

Kaanul Snake Kingdom, Maya 205, 216 war with Tikal 205

Kagan, Kimberley, The Eye of Command 264

Kalahari Desert

linguistic variations 109 and territorial ownership 109 see also San hunter-gatherers

Kalahari Research Group 99

Kalidasa, Raghuvamsa 602

Kalkriese, Germany, site of Battle of Teutoburg Forest (9 ce) 154, 249

Kamandaka, Nitisara 601

Kaqchikel social group, Guatemala 210,

212, 214

Kautilya, Arthasastra 600-1, 687, 697-8 Kavad, king of Persia 267

K'awiil Ajaw, Queen Lady of Coba 207 Kebara, Israel, Late Palaeolithic burials 66 Keegan, John 264

Keeley, Lawrence 92

War Before Civilization 21, 44, 55 Kennewick Man, North America 54 Kessel, Roman battlefield 248 Kharavela, Jaina king 598

Khoekhoe pastoralists, South Africa 113 K'iche social group, Guatemala 210, 212, 214 Kilianstädten see Schoneck-Kilianstädten kin networks 40

kings and kingship, India 589-605 administration of justice 593 and armies led by disguised substitute 697 Buddhism and 598-600 classical model of 590

and compassion 596

compensation for inherent violence 597 and Danda, ‘Punishment' 594 and dharma (pious duty) 590, 591 and expediency of force 604 and force in warfare 594-6

Maya people 203, 204, 215

and practice of non-violence 591 regicide sanctioned 597

role in encouraging soldiers in battle 695, 697-8, 701

theories of origin of 592-4

kings, Mesopotamia

annual military campaigns 235

claims of supremacy 225 divine kingship 220, 229, 235 and domestic stability 224 dynastic 227

imagery 223

military campaigns for booty 223, 231 monopoly of violence 221, 223, 225, 234 power of 223

royal graves and death pits of Ur 461-4 scale of divine mandate 235 substitute king ritual 460, 468-72 as war leaders 228

K'inich Janaab Pakal, Maya king of Palenque 207

K'inich Kan Bahlam, Maya king of

Palenque 207

K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo', Maya king 204 Kinzig, Wolfram 515

Kish, Mesopotamian city 228

Kishik, David 533

Kitakogane, Japan, Jomon site 166 Klawans, Jonathan 609

Knossos, New Hospital site, bronze helmet 131

Kojindani, Japan, Yayoi hoard 173

Korea, weapons in Japan 168, 170

Kowoj social group, Maya 212

Krapina, Croatia, Neanderthal remains 61, 62 Ksatriya varna (hereditary class) 591, 686, 690 Kuma Nishioda, Japan, Yayoi site 168

Kuruksetra, battle of 595

Kusana kings, India 603

Kyushu, Japan, Yayoi sites 166

La Tene, Switzerland

decorative style 447

human remains 449

Iron Age sword deposits 147,150, 448, 449 Lactantius, On the Deaths of the Persecutors 582 Lagash, Mesopotamia 224

wars with Umma 228, 645

Langklip, South Africa, Later Stone Age remains 105, 105

Late Neolithic Corded Ware culture

(CWC) 92

Late Palaeolithic see Final Palaeolithic; Upper Palaeolithic

Later Stone Age (Africa) 99, 104 archaeological evidence for violence 101-8, 103

scale of violence 114

see also San hunter-gatherers

Latin

meanings of violentia 476

sacrificium and immolatio (sacrifice) 477 Latium, Roman hegemony over 240 LBK see Linearbandkeramik (LBK) period (Neolithic)

Leakey, Richard 99

LeBlanc, Steven 21

Lee, Richard 100, 108

legal codes

biblical ritual 616

control and punishment 31

Greece 384, 536-7, 542-5

Judean (biblical) civil 613-16

and legal treatment of animals 475, 477, 481, 483

lex talionis 614

Mesopotamia 223, 225, 226

and norms of violence 14

see also Rome, republican

Lepidus, Marcus Aemilius 405

Levi, attack on Shechem 611

Li Feng 423

Libanius 522

For the Temples (381-92 ce ) 515, 516 Libya, wars with Egypt 190 Ligurians, mass deportation of 246 Lincoln, Iron Age shield in River Witham 147, 150

Lincoln, Bruce 372, 625

Lindow Man, Iron Age bog burial 328, 451

Linearbandkeramik (LBK) period (Neolithic)

90, 303, 306

burials and mass killings 306-11

funerary rituals 306, 311

Lisnacrogher, Ireland, Iron Age site 449 literature

evidence of religious violence in late antiquity 516-17

Tamil (Sangam) poetry 603

violence in 31

see also literature: Chinese, Christian, clas­sical, Egyptian, Greek, rabbinic, Sumerian (below); texts literature, Chinese 418

allusion to violence 421

Annals 431-2, 435

Book of Documents 422-3

Book of Songs 421-2

Gongyang Commentary 435

Historian's Records (Shiji) 432, 434, 435 Ritual Record 435

treatment of warfare in philosophical texts 425-32

Zhou Rituals 435

Zuo Commentary 431, 435

literature, Christian

and martyrdom 583

and suicide (voluntary martyrdom) 583-4 literature, classical vegetarian 475, 477

Porphyry 486-9

Theophrastus 485-6 literature, Egyptian 193,194-5

fictional 194

historical novel 195

royal novel 194

literature, Greek

Callirhoe 394

examples of violence against women in 387-94

and notion of good death 573, 585

timoria (revenge) 368, 370

and vengeful woman 360-1, 377 literature, rabbinic 574-6, 577

Tosefta Shabbat 575

literature, Roman see Cicero; Josephus; Julius Caesar; Livy; Plutarch; Seneca; Tacitus

literature, Sumerian/Babylonian 463-4

The Chronicle of Early Kings 471

The Death of Bilgames 463

The Death ofUr-Namma 464

Epic of Erra and I sum 467

Little Ice Age 47, 51

Liu Bang, Former Han emperor 279, 292

Liu Bei, Shu-Han emperor 284

Liu Xiu, Later Han emperor 279, 284

Livy (Titus Livius) 550

on battles 241, 555

on Celts 454

on Epirus 245

on illegitimate use of violence 403-4

on Punic Wars 242

Second Macedonian War 243

on Veii 240

Llyn Cerrig Bach, Wales, Iron Age slave burial 328, 449

London, Iron Age weapons 147,150

Lorenz, Herbert 151

Lovasen, Sweden

Bronze Age weapons 127, 128

rock art 132

Lü, empress, torture of rival 434

Lu Xun, and Daoist rebellion 293

Lucan, poet 442

Lusitanians, Roman massacre of (150 bce) 245 Luttwak, Edward 250

Lysias, On the Death of Eratosthenes 545

Maba, China, Pleistocene skulls 60 Maccabeans, martyrdom of 574, 576 Macedonia 552

Macedonian War, Second (200-197 bce) 243 maces, pear-shaped, Egyptian 187

McHardy, Fiona 360

machismo 382-3

Maddern, Philippa, ‘moral hierarchy of violence' 10

magic, Egyptian recourse to 346 Mahabharata, Sanskrit text 32, 593, 595,

684, 686

on compassion 596

and regicide 597, 604

Santi Parva 593-4, 684-6

Str! Parvan 700

on warfare 687

Mahasudassana, king 598

Maiden Castle, Dorset, hill fort 151, 152, 443, 444, 447

cemetery 155, 334

Mailleraye-sur-Seine, France, Iron Age weapon cremation 146

Mamom pottery, Maya 202

Manava Dharmasastra, treatise 687

Manching, Germany, Iron Age settlement

148, 151, 153

Manishtushu, king of Akkad 221

Mannlefelsen, Alsace, Oberlarg Mesolithic skull nest 74

Manu, and king as warrior 594, 687

Mar-Issar, Babylonian scholar 469, 470

Marcellus of Apamea 524

Marcomanni, German tribe 252

Marcus Aurelius, emperor 252, 556

column 674

Marduk, god of Babylon 622

Mari 644

cylinder seals 644, 647

Marincola, John 361

Marius, Gaius, general 408

alliance with Sulpicius 409-10

Marlowe, Elizabeth 680

Marmesse, France, Bronze Age cuirasses 130 marriage

monogamy, hunter-gatherers 94 polygynous, pastoralists 95

Martial, on gladiators 506 martyrdom 572-85 actively sought 523 and choice of exile 580

Christian 521, 523, 524, 577-84

Christian literature on 583

and classical notion of a good death 572-3, 585

Judaism 573-7

and suicide 576, 583-4

Masada, siege of (73 ce) 250 masculinity

and honour 10, 382, 394-6

in Indian warrior ideology 690, 698-9 and machismo 382-3

Masistes, brother of Xerxes 363, 365 mass graves

Maya

massacre victims 209

sacrificial victims 201, 203, 208, 210

Mayapan 211

Neolithic 25, 306-11

Halberstadt 80, 89, 310-11, 312

Kilianstädten 80, 88, 309-10 massacre victims, disorganised 299 Talheim 80, 88, 89, 307-8, 311

Roman Gloucester 337

see also burials

massacres

China 287

Jutland 448

of Lusitanians (150 bce) 245

Maya royal family at Yaxuna 205

Mesolithic 301

of war captives by Chinese 287

see also massacres, Neolithic

massacres, Neolithic 299-317 archaeological indicators 299, 301, 304 as collective response to threats 315 evidence of 80, 88, 94, 96

identification of 304-6

LBK burials and mass killings 306-11, 316 mass graves 299

men as perpetrators 312

patterns and peculiarities 311-15

possible ritual nature of 314 sites of conflict (unburied bodies) 299

Massalia, France 442

Matsugi, Takehiko 175

Mattern, Susan 238

Maxentius, war with Constantine 678

Maya people 47, 198-217

agriculture and settlement 200

city-states 199, 206

Colonial period 212-15

divine kingship and dynasties 203, 204, 215

Early Classic period 204-6

food production 216

historical periods 200

human sacrifice 198 intelligence gathering 214, 215

Kaanul Snake Kingdom 205, 216 languages 199

Late Classic period 206-8

murals 198, 203

overview 199-202

population 210

Post-classic period 210-12

Pre-classic period 202-4

research and knowledge of 198-9

Terminal Classic period 208-10

world beliefs 201

see also warfare, Maya

Mayapan, Mexico, Maya fortification 210,

211, 216

Cocom and Xiu conlict 213

Mead, Margaret 50

Medbo, Sweden, Bronze Age weapons 127 medicine

and care for injuries 62, 64, 75

human sacrifice 460

use of scapegoat 460

Medinet Habu, Thebes, mortuary tomb 182 Megabyzus, of Persia 370

Melkbosstrand, South Africa, Later Stone Age remains 105

Memmius, Gaius 412

men

and biblical civil legal codes 614

and machismo 382-3

mass grave as evidence of inter-group conflict 89

murder of single dangerous male 53 skeletal evidence of violence 326 see also domestic violence; masculinity;

patriarchy; warriors; women

Mencius, Chinese philosopher 282

aversion to violence 427

Merneptah, pharaoh 188,191 Meskalamdug, Sumerian king 463 Mesoamerica 200

see also Chichen Itza; Maya people; Nahua Mesolithic era

burials and cemeteries 69, 70, 71, 73 defined 58

evidence of violence 66-74

feuding 94

intensification of violence 66, 67, 75 inter-group violence 67, 69, 75,113, 301 massacres 301

Mesopotamia 219-36, 630

cities, city-states 27, 30, 219, 221-2, 227 concept of just war 224

cultures of 460

definition 219, 629

Early Dynastic period 227-8

economy 231, 232

environment 226

examples of violence 632-7

growth of territorial state 221, 224, 228, 233 historical developments 226-34

Inana goddess 222

later period 235-6

law codes 223, 225, 226

military campaigns 220, 221, 235, 460 myths and epics 465-8

Neo-Assyrian Empire 235, 362

Persian invasion (502-5 ce) 267 punishment of crime 460 relations of gods and kings 634 religious ritualised violence 633-4 representations of violence 629-52

public access to 649 visibility of 646-50

royal graves and death pits of Ur 461-4 spectacularisation of violence 633, 637-46, 652

substitute king ritual 460, 468-72

temples 645, 651

Third Dynasty of Ur 230-3 treatment of enemies 634-7, 648 violence as cultural element 631 violence in war 632, 637 world view of conquest 222-3 wrestling 494 see also Akkad; Assyria; Babylon; kings;

Sumeria; Syria; Ur; warfare, Mesopotamia

Mexico see Bonampak; Chichen Itza; Maya people; Mayapan; Yaxuna migration

barbarian tribes 36 Chinese forcible 291 evidence of Neolithic 91-3, 301 Roman Britain 337, 338, 339 millenarianism, China 294

Milo, Titus Annius, and Clodius 403, 412 Minami-Usu, Hokkaido, Jomon site 165,166 Minamikata, Japan, Yayoi site 168 Minatogawa, Japan, late Pleistocene site 164 Minorca, conversion ofJews 525-7 burning of synagogue 525, 526, 527

Mirgissa, Egyptian fortress 185

Miriam bat Tanhum 575 Mithridates of Caria, eunuch at court of

Persia 374

Moab, king of 617

Moabites 612, 623

Mochlos, Crete, Agora Bronze Age burials 133 Moctezumah, Aztech emperor 214

Modder River, South Africa, Later Stone Age remains 105, 107

Modrzejewski, Joseph Meleze- 482 Molina, Manuel 231

Molleson, Theya 462 Mommsen, Theodor 238

Monkodonja, Croatia, Bronze Age fortifications 120

monks, Christian, conscription into Roman army 271

monomachia (single combat in battle) 189, 498, 509

Mont Lassois, France, hill fort 151 Montejo the Younger, and Maya 213 Montfort Saint-Lizier, France, Late

Palaeolithic burials 65

Monthuhotep II, pharaoh 194

Morris, Alan 102, 103

Morris, Ian 28, 46 Morse, Edward 161 mosaics, Roman, domestic gladiatorial scenes 661-5, 663, 664

Moses, prophet 610, 611, 612

Mountain Arapesh tribe, New Guinea 50

Mozi, Chinese intellectual, on violence 428-9

Mulhouse-Est, LBK cemetery 90 murder see homicide

Mursa, Battle of (351 ce) 271 mutilation

and display of body parts 190

Egypt 190, 352

of enemy on battlefield 190, 365, 366, 643

and Neolithic massacres 310, 313

Persia 366, 374

of women 364, 367, 369, 614, 615

see also decapitation; dismemberment Mycenae

Bronze Age shields 121 fortifications 134 organic armour 131 shaft graves 136

myths

Babylonian epic of creation of humans 466-7, 651

Chinese Yellow Emperor 292 flood story 354, 467-8 of golden (peaceful) past 34, 45 Greek 34, 390, 534 hero-god and monster 354 Horus and Seth 353-4

Mesopotamian 465-8

Roman 34, 668, 668-9

in frescoes 657-60, 659, 660, 669

Sumerian 222

Nabatake, Japan, Yayoi site 171

Nagano Miya-no-mae, Japan, Yayoi site 167 Nagy, Gregory 535

Nahua (Aztec) people 201

as allies of Spanish 214

Naka, Japan, Yayoi settlement site 171 Nakao, Hisashi 164

Naram-Sin, king of Akkad 229 Naram-Sin stele 223

Nasica, Scipio, opposition to Tiberius Gracchus 406-7

Nataruk, Lake Turkana, Kenya, Mesolithic inter-group violence 67, 75, 113, 301

Native American tribes, Pequot 446 Neanderthals 58

archaeological sites 61, 62, 63, 75 care for injured people 62, 75 evidence of violence in 60-4, 75 risky hunting strategies 61, 75

Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon 621, 622 Nefertiti, queen of Egypt 193

Nehemiah, at court of Artaxerxes 1376 neighbours

and domestic violence 395

and public order in Rome 400 Nemean games, Argos 499

Kreugas-Damoxenos boxing match

501

Neo-Assyrian Empire 235

Royal Annals 362

see also Ashurbanipal

Neolithic era 24, 79-97, 86

cemeteries 83, 90, 304-6

changing patterns of violence 25, 79 enclosures 25, 83, 92

evidence for population migrations

91-3, 301

evidence of violent skeletal trauma 81, 85-9, 86, 87

factors in collective violence 302, 315 in-group and out-group violence 89-90, 300

increased inequality 93-6, 300

LBK burials and mass killings 306-11 massacres 299-317

move to settled farming communities

79, 300

need for cooperation 300, 302 population growth 83, 95, 315 scale of violence 80, 94, 96 social norms of violence 90-1 use of tools as weapons 302-3 see also Linearbandkeramik; mass graves; weaponry, Neolithic

Nestorius 524

Netherworld

Egyptian 186, 190

Mesopotamian 464, 472

New Guinea

Dani people 48

Mountain Arapesh tribe 50

Nguni cattle herders, South Africa 111,113 Nicanor, governor of Judea 576 Nicomedia, destruction of Christian church

(303 ce) 581

Nietszche, Friedrich 475

Nigeria, Kano dynasty 362

Nika riot (532 ce), Constantinople 518, 562 Nile, river, changes in flooding patterns 47 Nimrud, North-West Palace relief 639 Nineveh, Assyrian relief 642, 650

Ningirsu, god 224, 634

Niobids, Roman sculptural groups 661 Nippur Murder Trial, Mesopotamia 225 Nirenberg, D. 513

Nock, Arthur Darby 572 non-violence, India 7, 33, 589-605

Buddhist 589

and compensation for unavoidable violence 597

impossibility of absolute 596

Jainism 589

as part of dharma 595 practice of 591

Norbanus, Gaius, tribune of the plebs, trial (95 BCE)404-6

Nordheim, Germany, Iron Age weapon deposits 148

Nozick, Robert, theory of revenge 368, 369 Nubia

Egyptian campaigns in 184, 191, 195 Egyptian slave raids in 347

Nuceria, riot (53 ce) 656

Nydam, Denmark, Iron Age weapons deposit 448

Ofnet (Große Ofnet), Bavaria, skull nests 71-3, 72, 75, 82, 305

oikos (family, family property, house), traditions of 384-6

Oldcroghan Man, Irish bog body 451

Olmo di Nogara, Italy, Agora Bronze Age burials 133

Olympia, athletic games 495, 496, 499

Omori shell midden, Tokyo 161

Opimius, Lucius, consul 407 oppida, Iron Age 148, 151-3, 441 oracle bones, China 420

Oresteia 541

Osterby Man, bog body (head), Germany 452 Ostra Gerum, Sweden, Bronze Age cloak armour 131

Ostwald, M.

Otterbein, Keith 175

Ottoman Empire, harem politics 363

Otzi, Tyrolean Iceman 54

Pachomius, Egyptian monk 270 paganism

crimes of 521, 528

Egypt and 520

late Roman legislation against 515 persecution of Christians 522 paintings see frescoes

Palaeolithic era

defined 58

rarity of human remains 59 warfare 6

see also Final (Late) Palaeolithic period; Later Stone Age (Africa); Upper Palaeolithic

Palenque, Mexico, Maya site 204, 207

Pannonia, rebellion against Rome 249

Parkington, John 112

Parthia

Arsacid regime 258, 260

invasion of Roman Empire (161 ce) 252 and Rome 254

see also Persia

Parysatis, queen of Persia 372 blinding of eunuch Mithridates of Caria 374 and death of eunuch Artoxares 373 and death of eunuch Bagapates 374 rivalry with Stateira 375-6

Pass Lueg, Austria, Bronze Age helmet 131

Paterculus, Velleius 247

Patrae, annual bonfire to Artemis 481 patriarchy

modern traditional cultures 386-7, 394-6 see also domestic violence; wife beating patron deities

Chemosh of Moab 612, 617, 623

Queen of Heaven 623

role of 621

violence against own people 622, 623, 626 patronage, Roman clientela institution 401, 566

Paul, St 578

Paullus, Aemilius 245

Paulus Orosius, on massacre by Cimbric warriors 449

Pausanias, regent of Sparta 537

Pausanius

on animal sacrifice 479, 481

on boxing 501

Pax Romana 252-3

peace

Christian emphasis on 519, 522 evidence for periods of 45

Neolithic period 79

see also non-violence

Pedanius Secundus, L., murder of 568

Pentheus, death of (fresco) 658, 659

Perpetua, Christian martyr, dream 493-4, 504, 505

Persepolis, reliefs 365

Persia, Achaemenid 360-78, 552

dynastic politics 361

Persia, Achaemenid (cont.)

poisonings at court 376

power of women in royal court 362-3, 372 punishment of eunuchs 372-5 punishment techniques 366

rivalries in harem 377

Persian Empire 235

cavalry and archery 262

rise of 29

Sassanid dynasty 254, 258

and siege warfare 265, 266

as threat to Rome 258, 260, 269

treatment of captured Roman cities 268 use of elephants 266

use of sulphur fumes 266

see also Parthia

The Persians, tragedy 540

Peru, ritual warfare 40

Pescennius Niger, claimant to Roman Empire 677

Petasakes, eunuch at court of Persia 373

Petite Chasseur, Switzerland, depictions of weapons 120

Petrie, Sir W. M. Flinders 464

Petronius, on gladiators 507

Pfeiffer, Susan 108, 112, 115

evidence of violent trauma 102, 103 pharaohs, Egypt 342-5

as avatars of Horus 344

icons of power 187-8, 343

retinue, Followers of Horus (smsw-Hr) 348 smiting with mace 188, 344, 347 trampling of enemies 188

and waf-khasout (bending back) gesture 188

Philip II, king of Macedonia 552

Philip V, king of Macedonia 243

Philo Judaeus of Alexandria 503

Philostratus, on the pancratiast Arrhachion

501, 503

The Phoenician Women, play 540

Phrynichus, general 538

pictorial representations

Egyptian warfare 32, 179-95

Fregellae terracotta reliefs 655-6 inlays (Mesopotamia, Syria) 640, 646

Iron Age warriors and weapons 148-50 Japanese warriors 172

Roman warfare, Trajan's column 252, 672, 675, 676

see also cylinder seals; frescoes; inscriptions; mosaics; rock art; sculpture; statues Piedras Negras, Mexico 216

rivalry with Yaxchilan 207

Pierce, Leslie 363

Pindar 476, 503

Pinker, Steven 6

Better Angels of Our Nature 22

Piye, king of Nubia 191

Plataea, battle of (479 bce) 498

Plato 33

Euthyphro dialogue 544

Laws 482, 483

Republic 535

Plautus, on slaves 566

Pleistocene era 58, 59

Plettenberg Bay, South Africa, Later Stone Age remains 106

Pliny 245

and Christians in Bithnyia-Pontus 579 plunder

after battles, Egypt 190

displayed in Roman houses 655

by Roman army 254, 554, 556

Plutarch 375

on Epirus 245

on Gallic Wars 248

Life of Alcibiades 392-4, 542

on Punic Wars 242

on slaves 566

story of flaying of Bagapates/Mastabates 374, 375

on Sulpicius 410

poison

San arrowheads 108, 110

use at Achaemenid court of Persia 376, 377

Polybius, on Punic Wars 242

Polycarp, martyr 577

Pompeii, frescos and sculptures 656-60 Pompey (Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus) 247 and Cicero 410, 412

triumph 554

and use of popular violence 410 population

Iron Age estimates 441

Japan 174, 175

Maya 210

Neolithic rise of 83, 95, 315

and warfare 51 population density, and body size 109 Porphyry 515

Abstaining from Meat 486-9

and rights of animals 490

sacrifice of cattle 487

sacrifice of pigs 486

sacrifice of sheep 487

Port, Switzerland, Iron Age sword deposits 147

Portonaccio sarcophagus 669-71, 670 Poseidonius, on Celts 454

Postumius, Marcus, publicanus 403, 411

Praetorian Guard, Rome 249, 557

Prexaspes, Cupbearer at court of Cambyses 376

priests

violence by (Bible) 616-18 see also clergy

primates, aggression and violence 22, 49 prisoners of war, Egypt 184 acculturation into Egypt 192 binding of 185, 193 care for 190

treatment of 186

prisoners of war, Rome, ransom 274 Procopius 263, 264

Propertius, on animal sacrifice 479 property

acquisition and protection of 33 and oikos 384-6

Prthu, king as warrior 593

Pseudo-Demosthenes 543-4 public monuments

battle imagery (Roman) 676-7

to civil conflict (Arch of Constantine) 678-81, 679

emperor Claudius 672, 673 paintings as models for 676 Roman provincial 672, 676

Rome 671-81

of victory 672

see also funerary monuments

Punic Wars 242-3, 244

Second 35

Third 245

punishments

Athens 539

biblical ritual codes 616

and lex talionis (retributive) 614

and status 33

see also executions and death penalties punishments, Egypt 351-2

100 lashes 351

exile 352

of foreign enemies 184 incarceration 351 mutilation 352

recourse to magic 346

punishments, Persia 366 blinding 366, 373, 374

burial alive 371

flaying alive 366, 374

gouging out of eyes 373 molten lead in ears 374 mutilations 366

pricking of eyeballs 371, 373

public display 374

‘Trough' or ‘Boats' 371

punishments, Rome 563-5

hierarchy of 563

in late antiquity 517 for slaves 564, 565-6

Pyrrhic War 242, 244

Pyrrhus, king of Epirus 242 Pythian games, Delphi 499, 503

Qafzeh, Israel, Neanderthal juvenile burial

63, 75

Quadi, German tribe 252

Quirigua, Honduras, Maya kingdom 208 Q'umarkaj, Guatemala, Maya fortification

210

Quoin Point, South Africa, female Later Stone Age skeleton 101,102

raiding

death rates and pervasiveness 41 by forager parties 40, 48-50, 94

Maya 201

Ramayana, Sanskrit text 593, 595, 604 Ramesses III, pharaoh 182, 191 ‘Rape of the Sabine Women' 550

Razis, martyrdom of 576-7 rebellions 15

Britain (Boudicca) 249, 334

China 287, 292, 293, 294

Roman Empire 249, 569

records, written

earliest 27

see also literature; texts

Reformation, view of religious violence 514 Reiss, Werner 533, 536, 544

religion

association of monotheism and violence 513-14, 625

Iron Age societies 442, 446

and legitimation of violence 7

and military ritual, China 292-3

and modern state toleration 514

and ritualised violence 7, 446

violence motivated by 8

see also Bible; Buddhism; Christianity; cos­mology; Jainism; Judaism; symbolism religious violence

sacred killing (Mesopotamia) 633

see also Bible; religious violence, late anti­quity; ritual violence religious violence, late antiquity 512-28

critique of narrative of 515-20

destruction of temples 515

language of 518

nature of 513

pre-Christian 512 representation of violence

Mesopotamia and Syria 629-52

Roman 654-82

see also coins; frescoes; inscriptions; litera­ture; pictorial representations; rock art; sculpture; statues resources, competition for 23, 302

revenge

as duty in China 434-6

as justification for war 285

theory of 368

revenge violence 85

in Greece 540, 546

Rome 562

by women 360-78

see also vigilantism

Rgveda, heroic champion in, 685, 691 Rhine, river, late Roman frontier 259, 269 Ribemont-sur-Ancre, France

Iron Age weapon deposits 148, 450 ossuaries 450

Riches, David 608, 609

Ridley, Matt 95

Riot in the Amphitheatre, fresco in Pompeii

656

riots

Antioch 518

Constantinople 518, 562

in late antiquity 518, 562

Nuceria 656

and public ritual 518

at Roman circuses 561, 656

Roman theatre 561 ritualised violence 5, 35

and biblical notion of abomination 615-16 divine sanction for 618

Iron Age Europe 441-58

killing of children (biblical) 617-18

and religion 7, 446

see also animal sacrifice; human sacrifice; religious violence rock art

Egypt 342

Kalahari 110, 111, 113

Scandinavia 121, 129, 132 Rollinger, Robert 360, 363 Roman army 555-6

acts of genocide 334

archers 262, 263 auxiliary troops 143, 249 cavalry 246, 262, 263 changes in battle tactics in late antiquity 263-6

as citizen militia 555

combat engineers 246 conscription 270-1 demonstrations against levy (151 bce) 246 discipline 238, 243, 253-4

effect of Christianity on morale 274 evidence of brutality 245-6, 254 field armies 272-3, 275

frontier forces 272

heavy infantry 246, 262

hoplite system (militia) 240 increased size of 270, 273, 275 institutional violence in late antiquity 270-3 and Iron Age Europe 153-5, 157 legions 246, 249

manipular legion system 242 phalanx organisation 254 professionalisation 246, 249, 556 tattooing 270

Roman Empire 36, 550-70

and aggression 254

animal sacrifice 475-90

civil war (191-93 ce) 254

conquered people's perception of 249 control of 252

domestic depictions of war and violence 655-65

Early 248-55

emperors as military leaders 556 funerary monuments 665-71 gang violence in 415-16

gladiatorial spectacles 505-10, 557-60 increased tempo of warfare 254 invasion of Britain 249, 323, 332,333 life expectancy 569

Marcus Aurelius' column 252 nature of imperialism 238, 245

Pax Romana 252-3, 254, 260, 569 provincial monuments 672 rebellions 249, 569 representations of war and violence 654-82 Severan dynasty 254

third-century endemic civil war 254

triumphs (for victorious generals) 554, 560, 671

Year of the Four Emperors (69-70 ce) 251 see also Roman army; Roman Empire, late antiquity; Rome, republican

Roman Empire, late antiquity 257-75 alliance of church and state 514

Arab invasions 257, 259 barbarian invasions 254, 258, 259, 261 changing social and religious identities 516, 527

Christianity in 273, 512 persecution 522, 524, 578-81, 582 violent imposition of 513, 515 civil wars 260, 261 and Danube frontier 259 emphasis on defence 273 fall of Western Empire 257 forms of popular violence 517-18 history and historiography 257-62 military competition for imperial office 261 moral condemnation of violence 519 pagan acts outlawed 515 and Persia 260, 269 and Rhine frontier 259, 269 warfare compared with Pax Romana 260, 274

see also Roman army; Rome, city of; Rome, republican

Roman navy 249, 551

Romano-Bosporan conflict (49 ce) 250 Rome, city of

Arch of Constantine 678-81, 679

Arch of Septimius Severus 676 Asylum (Capitoline Hill) 553 Baths of Caracalla, Farnese Bull sculpture 677

Christian catacombs 574 Circus Maximus 560 Flavian Amphitheatre (Colosseum) 506, 554, 557

Horti Lamiani sculptures of Niobids 661

Horti Sallustiani sculptures of Niobids 661, 662

monumental buildings 554, 556 public monuments 671-81 sack by Goths (410) 268

Trajan's Column 252, 672, 675, 676

Vandals at (455) 269 victory monuments 672 see also Latin; Roman Empire; Rome, republican

Rome, republican 550-70 agrarian laws 404, 406-7 animal sacrifice 475-90 aristocratic military virtues 553-4 brutality as exceptional 245, 250-1 chariot races 560-1 civil unrest 247, 563 client states 243 clientela relationship 401, 566 collegia (local community associations) 401, 411-12, 413, 416

Conflict of the Orders 404 culture of militarism 551-7, 654, 681 gang violence 400-16 gladiatorial games 35, 557-60 human sacrifice 35 individual use of force 400 Late Republic 246-8 law on violence (lex de vi) 563 Middle Republic 242-6 and myths of Saturn's Italy 34 neighbourhoods 401 open concept of community 552-3 patriarchal control 9, 566 provincial system of government

243

punishments 563-5 hierarchy of 563, 564 religious festivals 560

representations of war and violence 654-82 domestic depictions 655-65

rise of 29

sacking by Gauls (387 bce) 241

self-help for maintenance of public order 400-1, 404-6, 562-3, 570

slaves in 565-6

social hierarchy 569

Social War (91-88 bce) 247, 408 taxation 34

theatrical spectacles 561-2 tribunes' use of popular violence 404-6, 407-8

triumphs (for victorious generals) 554,

560

Twelve Tables (law code) 563 use of private guards to disrupt public business 403, 414

violence against lower orders 566-9 and claim of powerlessness 567-8

violence of early Rome 239-42, 550, 552 war with Greek city-states (280 bce) 242 wars of conquest 552

assimilation of conquered peoples as allies (socii) 241

Rome, republican (cont.)

and punitive actions 251

see also Roman army; Roman Empire; warfare, Rome

Romulus 550

Roymans, Nico 143

Ruffefl, I. 541

Rufinus, account of the destruction of the

Serapeion 520-2

Russell, Frank 251

sacrifice 7, 35, 512

battle as (India) 691-4

Christian view of pagan 521, 522, 528 of grain, incense and honey 484, 485 see also animal sacrifice; human sacrifice;

ritual violence

Saint-Cesaire, Roche-a-Pierrot, France,

Neanderthal remains 62, 63, 75 Sakaeiso, Hokkaido, Jomon site 163,165 Saldanha Bay, South Africa, Later Stone Age remains 106

Sallust 553

Samaria, capital of ancient Israel 621 violence against women of 366

Samnites, Roman treatment of 247 Samudragupta, Gupta emperor 602 San Bartolo, Guatemala, Maya site 203 San hunter-gatherers, Kalahari 99 conflict with Nguni cattle herders 111, 113 disputes over women 100, 108, 115 ethnographical study of 100 and European colonists 110 historical reports of violence 110 reputation as peaceful 100 rock art 110, 111, 113 use of poisoned arrows 108

San Juan Ante Portam Latinam, Spain,

Neolithic site 85

San Teodoro, Sicily, Late Palaeolithic burials 65

Sancisi-Weerdenburg, Heleen 365, 375 sanctuaries, Iron Age

Gaulish 449-50 weapon deposits 148

Sannai Maruyama, Japan, Jomon settlement site 171

Sanskrit, negative compound words 589 Santi Parvan 593-4, 684-6

rules of warfare 687

Santosuosso, Antonio 246 sarcophagi, Roman battle scenes 669-71, 670 depictions of violence on 667-71, 668, 670 mythological scenes 668, 668-9

Sargon, king of Akkad 28, 228, 229, 621

stele of 634, 636, 643

Sarmatians, invasion on Roman frontier 252

Saturninus, Gaius Sentius, consul 415

Saturninus, Lucius Appuleius, tribune 407 Scandinavia

fortifications 135

Iron Age depositions 448

martial symbolism 137

Mesolithic sites 70

rock art 121, 129, 132

see also Denmark; Sweden

scapegoats

and doctrine of substitutions 471-2 substitute king ritual 460, 468-72 used in Mesopotamian medicine

460

Schela Cladovei, Romania, Late Mesolithic site 69

Scheper-Hughes, Nancy and Lock,

Margaret 691

Schmidt, Bettina 608

Schoneck-Kilianstädten, Neolithic mass grave

80, 88, 309-10

evidence of mutilation 310, 313

Schroder, Ingo 608

Scipio Africanus 242

Scripture on Great Peace, China 293

Scullard, H. H. 238

Sculptor's Cave, Scotland, evidence of decapitation 457

sculptures

bas-reliefs, Mesopotamia 632, 639, 642, 646, 650, 651

colossal groups (Caracalla) 677

of Indian kings 602

monuments of war (Mesopotamia) 645,

646

Neolithic China 419

Roman 661, 662

see also inscriptions; statues

Seleucids, defeat by Rome 243 self-help

for maintenance of public order (Rome) 400-1, 404-6, 562-3, 570

and vigilantism in classical Athens 536, 537, 542, 545

self-inflicted violence

to avoid conscription into Roman army 271 see also suicide

Semonides, On Women (Greek poem) 389

Seneca, Lucius Annaeus 550, 570

Sennacherib, king of Assyria 235, 621, 641, 650 Sentium, Battle of (295 bce) 241

Senwosret III, pharaoh 344

Septimius Severus, emperor 556 monuments 676-7

Serapeion, Alexandria, destruction of (391 ce)

513, 5i5, 520-2

Sertorius, Quintus 247 servants

ritual slaughter and burial with elites 227, 420, 460

see also slaves

Sestius, Publius 412 settlements

Bronze Age, Crete 135

China, fortified 291

Iron Age 151-3, 441, 446

Japan 163,171-2

entrance gates 172 watchtowers 172

Maya 200, 202 defensible 203, 210

see also cities; fortifications

Sety I, pharaoh 195

Severus, bishop, on conversion of Jews of Minorca 525-7

sexual dimorphism, and male inter-group conflict 51

sexual violence 5, 14

in Greek comedy 541, 542

within family in Athens 383, 534 shabti figurines, in Egyptian burials 465 Shalmaneser III, king of Assyria 650 shame, and honour cultures 10, 14, 384-6 Shang Yang, The Book of Lord Shang 429-30 Shanidar, Iraq, Neanderthal remains 62, 75 Sharples, Niall 143

Shenoute, Egyptian abbot 516 Sherwin-White, Adrian 579

Shield Jaguar III, Maya king of Yaxchilan 208 shields, Bronze Age 121-2

bronze 121

and fighting techniques 136 figure of eight 121

round 121

tower 121

wood and leather, Ireland 121, 122 shields, Iron Age see Battersea Shield Shimizukaze, Japan, pictorial jar 172 Shimon ben Gamli'el, rabbi 574, 575 Shinmachi, Japan, Yayoi site 167

Shizukawa, Hokkaido, Jomon settlement site 171

Shogoro Tsuboi 161

Shu-Suen, king of Ur 232

Shulgi, king of Ur 230

siege warfare

Assyrian 648

China 287, 291

Egypt 349

Persian 259, 265, 266, 269 see also siege warfare, Roman siege warfare, Roman 246, 262, 275

Amida 266

barbarians and 268

Carthage 243

Edessa 267

food and logistics 267 killing of captives 241, 243, 268

Masada 250

pogrom of Jews in Constantina 267

Valentia 247

Sihyaj K'ahk', Maya king 204, 205 Sima de los Huesos, Atapuerca, Spain,

Pleistocene skulls 60, 74

Sima Qian 436

Historian's Records (Shiji) 432, 434 Simeon, attack on Shechem 611 Situla Art, Iron Age 149

Skedemosse, Sweden, Iron Age massacre deposit 448

skeletons, evidence from

Bronze Age weapon-inflicted trauma

132

carnivore gnawing 309, 310, 314, 325 disarticulated 326

Egyptian weapon trauma 189 of interpersonal violence 59, 325, 337

Iron Age weapon trauma 156, 324, 326

Later Stone Age forager violence 102-8 Neanderthal injuries 61

Neolithic violent trauma 81, 85-9, 86, 87

massacre sites 303, 307-8, 313 sharp force (arrows) 309, 313 parry fractures of ulna 68, 69 performative violence 326, 327, 329, 339 processing of sacrificial victims, Maya

210

trauma, Japan 163-8

trauma to long bones 313 traumatic bone lesions 101, 108 violence against women 55, 69 skeletons, evidence from (cont.)

war injuries 43, 54, 204

see also injuries; skeletons: evidence of health, healed lesions (below); skulls skeletons, evidence of health and diet 323, 329

Iron Age Britain 329 and origin 310

Roman Britain 337-8 stress indicators 324, 337 skeletons, healed lesions 108, 307

Iron Age Britain 324 skull nests

Hohlenstein-Stadel 73

Ofnet, Bavaria 71-3, 82

skull racks, Maya 209, 214 skulls

blunt-force injuries

Japan 165,165,166

Neolithic massacres 308, 309, 310, 312 healed lesions 62, 63, 64, 66, 70

Maya 203

injury evidence 59, 72

Neolithic 85, 87

location of injuries 59, 72, 72

hat brimline, Neanderthal 61

Pleistocene 59

see also skeletons

Sky Witness, Kaanul Maya king 206 slaves

Athens 33, 539

‘culpable' 482 enslavement after sieges 268

Iron Age Britain 328

mass enslavement by Rome 245, 250, 254 as part of Roman elite retinues 402 Roman Britain 337

Roman punishments for 564, 565-6 in Rome 565-6 status of 33, 565 see also servants

Snuifklip, South Africa, Later Stone Age remains 105

social hierarchy

and biblical civil legal codes 614

and Indian sura heroic warrior 684, 700

Iron Age Britain 321, 324 punishment defined by 563, 564

Rome 569

violence against lower orders 10, 33, 566-9 social inequality, Neolithic increased 93-6,

300

social substitution 84

Social War (91-88 bce), Italy 247

society

and acceptability of violence 4,13

and norms of violence 17, 90-1

role of low-level violence 31

see also intra-societal violence; social hierarchy

Sogdianus, pretender to Persian throne 372 soldiers

billeting of Roman field armies 272-3, 275 hereditary (China) 290

and religion 273

and severed heads of enemies 639-40, 640 specialist 28

violence against civilians 272

see also Chinese army; Roman army; warriors

Solomon, king of Israel 620

Solon, on law on animals 483

South America

forager raiding warfare 42

see also Yanomamo people

Spain

increased Neolithic violence 93

and Maya peoples 212-15

Spartans 537, 574

spear throwers, Maya 204, 209 spears 119, 126-7 cutting edges 127 European styles 126 fighting styles 126

Roman 254

split socket (Aegean) 126

Sweden 127,128

Upper Palaeolithic 65, 75 Spierenburg, Pieter 3 Spissky Stvrtok, Slovakia, Bronze Age fortifications 120

sport

Greek athletic games (agones') 35, 495, 499

Maya ball games 201

and violence with animals 15

wrestling (Mesopotamia) 494

see also sport, combat

sport, combat, Egypt

stick fighting 184

wrestling 184

sport, combat, Greece 496-504

boxing 496, 497-8, 500-1

Bronze Age depictions 496-7

funerary games 497

ideology of ‘victory or death' 503-4 importance of spectators 497 Mycenaean sword fighting 496 pancratium (wrestling/boxing) 494, 501-3 prizes 498

violence as ‘valuable' 495

wrestling 500

sport, combat, Roman gladiatorial 494, 504-10, 557-60

Christian rejection of 522 depicted in domestic mosaics 661-5, 663, 664 depicted on funerary friezes 666, 667 given by local elites throughout empire

509-10, 558

in Greek world 508

lanista (trainer) 504

as munus (duty) 504, 505, 558

origins in aristocratic funerals 504-5, 558 as purposive violence 508

referees 506

role of the crowd 506

rules and conventions 507-8 signal of submission 506 types of armament 507

Stare Hradisko, Czech Republic, Iron Age oppidum 153

state violence 4

Egypt 342

modern state monopoly of 514

Stateira, wife of Artaxerxes II 375

and Parysatis 375-6

state(s), early

and control of violence 7

and defence 28, 30

Mesopotamia 219

and move to empires 27-9 political violence 9, 27 and rebellions 15 and religion 514 taxation and tribute 34 and warfare 28

statues, Iron Age

British figurines 149

depictions of weapons and warriors 148 stone monuments (Provence) 454-5, 456 see also sculptures

Ste Croix, Geoffrey de 579

steles see inscriptions

Stephen, Saint 578

Stephens, John Lloyd 198 Stoics, on animal sacrifice 485

Storax, Lusius, funerary frieze 666, 667 Story of Sinuhe, Egyptian fiction 194

Strabo, on Gaulish human sacrifice 453 Stradonice, Czech Republic, hill fort 151 Strasbourg, battle of (357 ce) 265

Strauss, Barry 392 substitute king ritual apotropaic rites 470, 471 choice of substitute 469-70 Mesopotamia 460, 468-72 process of 470 sacrifice of substitute 471 substitutions, doctrine of 471-2 Suetonius 655 suicide

Jews 577

and martyrdom 576, 583-4

as punishment for elite Romans 564

Suku Okamoto, Japan, Yayoi site 173

Sulla, Lucius Cornelius 247, 409

Sulpicius, Publius, tribune

alliance with Marius 409-10

employment of gangs 408-10

Sumeria 28

culture 460, 465

myth composition 222

Sun En, Daoist rebel 293

Sund, Norway, Bronze Age remains 117, 133

Sunghir, Russia, Upper Palaeolithic burials

64, 75

Sunzi (Sun Tzu, Sun Wu), The Art ofWar 425-6

and avoidance of violence 425 sura (heroic warrior) 698 Susa, Mesopotamian city 223 Sutta Pitaka, Buddhist text 592 Suzuki, Hisashi 164 Sweden

Bronze Age 127, 128,131

Iron Age 448

Mesolithic burial sites 70

rock art 129, 132

swords, Bronze Age 122-6

combat techniques 125-6

European 123

hammer and sabre grips 124, 126

hilted 123, 125

leaf-shape 123, 125

long, mid-rib 123

short 123, 125

spread of varying types 124

swords, Iron Age

in deposits 147-8

Hallstatt scabbard 145, 148, 149

and male status 145

ornamentation 145, 147, 150-1

swords, Roman, short (gladius') 242, 243, 555 symbolism

Egyptian animals 343

symbolism (cont.)

of hill forts 443, 445

Iron Age weaponry 143, 145, 157, 443

Japanese weaponry 173

Scandinavian martial 137

Syria 630

archaeology 629

examples of violence 632-7

extent 629

representations of violence 629-52 spectacularisation of violence 633, 637-46, 652

temples 645

violence as cultural element 631

violence in war 632, 637

visibility of representations of violence 646-50

Tacitus 564

Agricola 249

Annals 248

Germania, on bog burials 452

on Germans 143, 249

on Jewish War 250

on naval arena spectacle 559

on Nucerian riot 657

Taginae, Battle of (552 ce) 263

Takasago, Japan, Jomon site 166

Tale of the Two Brothers, Egyptian story 368

Talheim, Germany, Neolithic mass grave 80, 88, 89, 307-8, 311

Tamatsu Tanaka, Japan, Yayoi site 168

Tanagra, Greece, sword fighting 496 tattooing

of Roman arsenal workers 271

Roman soldiers 270

tax collection, use of soldiers for, Rome 271 taxation 34

Tayasal, Guatemala, Maya capital 215

Teate Marrucinorum, funerary frieze 666, 667

Tecum, Maya general 214

Tela, attacked by Ashurnasirpal 366

Tell Beydar, cylinder seals 647, 647

Tencteri, German tribe 248

Teotihuacan, Mexico, Maya site 204

ter Haar, Barend 426

Terasawa, K. 168

Tertullian

on Christian martyrdom 572

on gladiators 508, 509

Tetovo, North Macedonia, sword 124

Teumman, king of Elam 642

Teutoburg Forest, Battle of (9 ce) 154,

249

texts

Chinese 431-2, 434, 435

classical

early Imperial Rome 248

on Iron Age peoples in Europe 142,156, 454

on Late Republican Roman army 247 Indian 593, 595, 600, 601, 604

Japanese 32

Mesopotamia 219, 230

Spanish accounts of Maya colonisation 212

Third Dynasty of Ur 230

‘Triumph of Horus' 354

see also inscriptions; literature; Mahabharata, Sanskrit text theatre 35

Athenian 540-2

Rome 561-2

Theodosius I, emperor

executions in Thessalonica (390 ce) 518

legislation against paganism 515, 524 Theophrastus, vegetarian polemic against animal sacrifice 485-6

Thera, Greece, Minoan fresco 496 Thesmophoriasuzae, play 542 Thessalonica, riot (390 ce) 518 Thomas, Elizabeth Marshall 99 Thormarton, England, Bronze Age warrior remains 117

Thucydides

on Cleon 535

on coup in Athens (411 bce) 537

on war 30, 538

Thutmosis I, pharaoh 183, 186

Thutmosis III, pharaoh 183, 195

Tiamat, murder of, Mesopotamian epic of creation 466

Tiberius, emperor, anti-pagan riots (580 ce) 518 Tiglath-Pileser, king of Assyria 367, 641, 649 Tikal, Guatemala, Maya site 204

and Dos Pilas 208

wars with Kaanul Snake Kingdom 205 Tintignac, France, Iron Age weapons deposit 147

Tiryns, Greece, fortifications 134

Tollense Valley, northern Germany, Bronze

Age battlefield 26, 130, 134, 137

Tollund Man, bog body (Jutland) 452

Tonina, Mexico, Maya site 207 tools

axes 128

as weapons 92, 169, 303

see also weaponry

Toro, Japan, Yayoi site 162 torture

archaeological evidence of, Valentia 247 bog bodies 451, 452

China 434

of slaves in Rome 566

‘traditional' cultures, modern, treatment of women 386-7, 394-6

Trajan, emperor 252, 556

and Christians 579

Column 252, 672, 675, 676

Great Frieze 672

victory games (107 ce ) 557

tribute

annual 34

to kingdom of Ur 232

‘Triumph of Horus' text 354 trophy body parts

display of 190

Mesopotamia 638-45, 640

Iron Age 454

Maya 201

Roman Britain 334

see also heads

trophy taking

Egypt 190

Maya 202

Trou de Han caves, Belgium 455 trumpets (carnyxes), Iron Age 145

Tulum, Mexico, Maya fortification 210 Turchin, Peter 46

Turkana, Lake see Nataruk

Tutankhamun, pharaoh, durbar scenes 184 tyrants, tyranny

Athens 537, 545-6

India 604

Tz'utujil, Maya kingdom 214

Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil, Maya rule of Copan 208

Ulpian, Digest 482

Umm el-Qa'ab, Egypt, royal necropolis 464

Umma, Mesopotamia 224

wars with Lagash 224, 228

Upper Palaeolithic period 58 violence in hunter-gatherers 64-5 weapons 65, 75

see also Later Stone Age (Africa)

Ur, Mesopotamia 220

fall of 233

Royal Cemetery 227, 472

arrangement of bodies 462

and death pits 461-4 evidence of trauma 462

Standard of 228, 231

Third Dynasty (Ur III) 230-3

Ur-Namma, king of Ur 220, 222, 464

Urban Cohort, Rome 557

Uruk, Mesopotamian city 222

seal impressions 647

Usipetes, German tribe 248

Uxellodunum, Gaulish oppidum 446

VaCe, Slovenia, Iron Age belt plate 149 Valdivia, Pedro de 213

Valens, emperor 271

Valentia, siege of (75 bce) 247

Valerian, emperor, and Christians 580-1 van der Merwe, Nikolaas 112 van der Post, Laurens 99

Van Straten, F., Hiera Kala: Images of Animal Sacrifice... 478

Vandals, pillaging of Rome (455 ce) 269 Vatin, Serbia, Bronze Age battle-axe 129 Vatinius, Publius, trial of 412 Vedb^k-Bogebakken, Denmark, Mesolithic

cemetery 70

vegetarianism, in classical literature 475, 477, 485-9

Veii, Roman conquest of 240, 241

Vekso, Denmark, horned helmets 132

Velim, Czech Republic arrowheads 129

Bronze Age remains 133 hill fort 135

Vergil (Publius Vergilius Maro), Aeneid 239,

557, 681

Vespasian, emperor 251

Victory, personification of 672

vigilantism

Athens 536, 537, 542, 545

Rome 562-3

Vindolanda, Northumberland, Roman fort

332, 334

Vinnecombe, Patricia 110 violence

in ancient world 29-36

benefits of 22-3

cultural variety 10 definitions 3-5 in early prehistory 23-6 etymology of Greek bia 533 evolution of 20-2

forms of 4, 40 violence (cont.) as innate in humans 6, 19 and intention to cause harm 3 legitimate and illegitimate forms 14 as method of control 10 nature of 17 origins of 19 regional variations 26 social and economic contexts 19 and social norms 17, 90-1 society's view of (acceptable and unacceptable forms) 4, 13 spectacularisation of 633, 637-46, 652 see also collective violence; domestic vio­lence; gang violence; homicide; inju­ries; inter-group violence; inter­personal violence; intra-societal vio­lence; massacres; non-violence; reli­gious violence; ritualised violence; sexual violence; state violence; warfare

Vix, France, Iron Age statues 148 Vultures, Stele of the 224, 228, 634, 635, 643, 644

Wandlebury, hill fort, Cambridgeshire, Iron Age burials 327

Wang, C. H. 419, 421, 429

War Scroll (1 QM) (Dead Sea Scroll) 624 Ward-Perkins, Bryan, The Fall of Rome and the End of Civilization 258

warfare 24 as anarchic 41 and archaeology 43-4 Bronze Age 28,117-39 size of armies 134 death rates 41-2 definitions 40 and elites 36 endemic in early Mediterranean world 552 future research on 55-6 genetic consequences of 50-1 impact on societies 46 and intra-societal violence 52-3 Mesoamerica 201 origins of 39-56 Palaeolithic era 6 as political control 209 reasons for 45, 47 regional variations 30 ritual 40 role in prehistory 21 scale of Iron Age 157 strategies against defences 28, 30

violence against women 366-7

and wealth acquisition 33

see also fortifications; injuries; just war; raiding; siege warfare; warfare: China, Egypt, India, Maya, Mesopotamia, Rome (below); warriors; weaponry warfare, China (early imperial) 277-94

and concept of just war 281-5 conquests as punitive 281 literary treatment of 425-32 need for preparation (Confucius) 426 and religious ritual 292-3 and ‘righteous armies' 281 Shang dynasty 420 Zhou dynasty 423 warfare, Egypt 56, 185, 189-92 hand-to-hand combat 343 and hunting 195

in depictions 181, 182-3

military training 189 representations of 32, 179-95 rituals of 181, 188 scorched earth policies 191 siege warfare 349 women and 193 warfare, India

Buddhism and 599, 600

Jainism on 597-8 ritual of battle 691-4 rules of 687-8 use of force by kings 594-6 warfare, Maya 44, 198-217

colonial period 212-15

conquest and collapse 208, 216 late classic period 206-8 local rivalries 205, 206, 213 postclassic period 210-12 psychological 214 ritual motivations 215 and social changes 215 strategies of 215 terminal classic 208-10 warfare, Mesopotamia 219-36

growth of military elites 227, 231 representations of violence of 632 taking of captives and livestock 236 treatment of enemies 634-7 ubiquity of 220, 222-3, 230, 231 warfare, Rome 238-55

changing nature of in late antiquity 262-9 character of 238-9 cross-border raiding 269

culture of 253 impact of Christianity in late antiquity 273-4 increase in second century 254 mining 266

motivation for 244 reduction in early empire 249 textual evidence for 264, 265, 267 violence of close combat 243 see also siege warfare

warrior graves, Japan 168-9,173 warrior ideology

emergence of 7

see also soldiers; warrior ideology, India; warriors

warrior ideology, India 684-702 acceptance of pain and injury 689-91 application to actual martial groups 701 battle as ritual sacrifice 691-4 collective oath before battle 695 condemnation of cowards 694-7 death in battle, rewarded in heaven 689 heroism as transcendent ideal 699 justification for violence 688 and masculinity 690, 698-9 rewards for heroism 696, 698 sura, heroic warrior 684, 688-91, 698 warriors, Bronze Age 136-8 archers 121 body modification 137 changing identity 137, 138 as elites 137 non-specialist 137 training 138 see also fighting; weaponry warriors, Iron Age

‘Celtic' mercenaries in Mediterranean 142, 156

pictorial representations 143, 148-50 weapons and identity 447 see also soldiers

warriors, Japan 172-3 representations 172

warriors, Maya 204 depictions 208

Way of Great Peace sect, Yellow Turban Rebellion (184 ce) 292

Wayland's Smithy, Oxfordshire 89 We-ila, Babylonian god 466 wealth

and social inequality 95 and warfare 33

weaponry clubs 118, 119, 137 flint daggers 119

knobbed sticks, San 111

Neolithic 119, 303, 419

‘battle axes' 92,118, 119, 419

projectile 65, 66,118

Mesolithic 68, 70

spears, Upper Palaeolithic 65, 75

see also arrows and arrowheads; bow and

arrow

tools used as 169, 302-3, 419

see also armour; bows and arrows; spears; swords; weaponry: Bronze Age, China, IronAge,Japan, Maya, Roman (below)

weaponry, Bronze Age 26-7

advantages of metal over stone 118-19 armour 130-2

daggers 119

halberds 119

shields 121-2

slings 130

spears 119, 126-7

swords 122-6

wooden clubs 137

see also armour; shields; swords weaponry, China

Neolithic 419

Shang dynasty 420

weaponry, Egypt 349 weaponry, Iron Age 143-5

from battlefields 153-5

bronze 144

in burials 145-7

defensive 144

deposits 147-8, 158, 447-9

iron 28, 144

ornamentation 145, 147, 150-1, 157,

447

pictorial representations 148-50

symbolic 143,145, 157, 443

weaponry, Japan 169-71

arrowheads 170

bronze 170

iron 170

Korean bronze 168

polished stone daggers 169

sling stones 170

stone ‘rods' (sekibo) 169

symbolic 173

tools as weapons 169

wooden breastplates 170 weaponry, Maya

darts 209

spear throwers 204, 209

weaponry, Roman army shortsword (gladius) 242, 243, 555 spears 254

Web of Violence model, Britain 320 Weerdinge, Netherlands, Bronze Age site

130

Wetwang Slack, Yorkshire, Iron Age burials

324,327

Whitcher's Cave, South Africa, Later Stone Age remains 106

Wiederstedt, Neolithic mass grave 80 Wiesehofer, Josef 377

wife beating

Arab nomos of 386

Athens 383, 394

and class 393

Wilson, Edward O. 6

Winter, Irene 648 Wolpert, A. 545

women

in Achaemenid Persia 360-78

as agents of violence 12, 360-78

in depictions of war and violence 674

as Egyptian rulers 193

as heavenly reward for warriors 689 and honour 11

hypothetical case of wife protecting husband (in Deuteronomy) 614-15 and Indian warrior ideology 698, 700-1 Iron Age weapon graves 145 in modern ‘traditional' cultures 386-7,394-6 skeletal evidence of violence 55, 69

evidence of elder abuse 335

Iron Age Britain 325

Japan 164, 176

Roman Britain 335

slitting of wombs of pregnant 366 status of 5, 32

in Roman Britain 338

as victims of violence 12, 176

and warfare 366-7

captured 55, 89, 96

Neolithic 308, 312

in Egypt 193

see also adultery; children; domestic vio­lence; masculinity; men; sexual vio­lence; wife beating; women, in Greece

women, in Greece

examples in literature 387-94 Greek vision of vengeful 360-1 and honour-shame nexus 384-6 male control of 386

violence against 14, 380-98 triggers for 396

Woolley, Sir Leonard, excavations at Ur 461, 462 wounds see injuries

Wrangham, Richard 6

Wu, emperor of Former Han 285, 287, 288-9 and Chi You warrior god 292

Wu, king, leader of Zhou conquest of Shang 423

Xenophon 538 animal sacrifice 480

Oeconomicus 394

on Persia 373

Xerxes, king of Persia 363

dispute with brother Masistes 365 Xiang Yu, rebellion against Qin empire 287 Xiaowen, emperor of Northern Wei 285 Xiongnu steppe confederation 284, 286 as threat to Former Han 287, 288

Xunzi, Chinese philosopher 282 on proper and improper violence 427-8

Yanomamo people, South America 48 intra-societal violence 52-3

Yax Nuun Ayiin I, king of Tikal 216 Yaxchilan, Mexico, rivalry with Piedras

Negras 207

Yaxuna, Mexico, Maya site 205 destruction of 210 road to Coba 207

Yellow Emperor, myth, China 292

Yellow Turban Rebellion (184 ce), China 292 Yishma'el, rabbi 574, 575

Yokokuma Kitsunetsuka,Japan, Yayoi site 168 York, Driffield Terrace Roman British burial ground 336

Yose ben Kisma, rabbi 577

Yoshinogari, Japan, Yayoi defensive settlement 162, 163, 172

Yoshitake Takagi, Japan, Yayoi warrior coffin tomb 168, 170

Yu Rang, and revenge 435 Yucatan, Spanish encounter with Maya 213

Zacpeten, Guatemala, Maya site 210

Zakutu (Naqia), Neo-Assyrian queen

362 Zama, battle of (202 bce) 243 Zamecek, Slovakia, Bronze Age

fortifications 120

Zanker, Paul, and Bjorn Ewald 669

Zeus

animal sacrifice 488

threats against Hera 388

Zevit, Ziony 612

Zheng of Qin, First Emperor 278, 283

campaigns of conquest 278, 281, 286, 433

confiscation of private weapons 278

Zliten, Lepcis Magna, Roman mosaic 663, 664

Zoroastrianism, purity and impurity

372

Zuo Commentary, Chinese text 431, 435

examples are often found, leading to a significantly increased prevalence of interpersonal violence in many regions.^{* 16}

In Japan, the oldest example of skeletal violence is a probable perimortem injury to the young adult female skull 4 at Minatogawa, a late Pleistocene site on Okinawa dating to 20,000 to 16,000 years ago. The report on this skull concluded that ‘the perforation is considered to be the result of some violent outside force, such as an arrow point shot from a high place to the forehead’.^{17 18} Another well-known example comes from the Final Jomon shell midden site of Hobi on the Astumi Peninsula, where an elderly male was found with numerous blunt force injuries to the cranium. Hisashi Suzuki suggested that at least two or three attackers were involved, with a number of blows being struck from behind.1⁸ While only a single case, this is inter­esting because of the extreme violence employed. Nevertheless, it is still not possible to determine whether this was ‘in-group’ or ‘out-group’ conflict, the latter being one of the criteria for ‘warfare’. A recent review of the Jomon period by Nakao and colleagues lists twenty-three individuals with apparent

16 Rick J. Schulting and Linda Fibiger, ‘Skeletal Evidence for Interpersonal Violence in Neolithic Europe: An Introduction’, in R. J. Schulting and L. Fibiger (eds.), Sticks, Stones and Broken Bones: Neolithic Violence in a European Perspective (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), pp. 1-15. A demonstration of the resistance to recognising violence in the Jomon is the suggestion that three cases of embedded projectile points from eastern Japan with signs of healing, all involving adult males, could represent accidents rather than conflict: see Nelly Naumann, Japanese Prehistory: The Material and Spiritual Culture of the Jomon Period (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2000), pp. 61-2.

17 H. Hisashi Suzuki, ‘Skulls of the Minatogawa Man’, in H. Suzuki and K. Hanihara (eds.), The Minatogawa Man. The Upper Pleistocene Man from the Island of Okinawa, UMUT Bulletin 19 (Tokyo: University Museum, University of Tokyo Press, 1982); on the dating of Minatogawa, see R. Nakagawa et al., ‘Pleistocene Human Remains from Shiraho-Saonetabaru Cave on Ishigaki Island, Okinawa, Japan, and Their Radiocarbon Dating’, Anthropological Science 118 (2010), 173-83.

18 H. Suzuki, ‘On the Three Cases with Injuries by Conflicts’, Journal ofthe Anthropological Society of Nippon 83(1975), 269-79.

period by nomadic peoples following a hunter-gatherer lifestyle. While its exact timing and nature is the subject of some controversy, the most popular theory holds that populations in modern-day Siberia crossed into Alaska near the end of the Pleistocene via the now submerged Bering land bridge that was exposed owing to much lower sea levels at that time. The oldest evidence for human occupation in the Americas that has wide acceptance by the scientific commu­nity comes from Monte Verde in southern Chile and dates back approximately 14,800 years. The oldest evidence for human occupation in the Maya area is nearly as ancient. In 2007 divers exploring the extensive underwater caverns of Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula discovered a nearly complete human skeleton that has been dated to between 12,000 and 13,000 years bce.⁴ While the subsequent Archaic period lacks evidence of permanent settlements, agriculture was gra­dually adopted by these nomadic peoples, with squash, corn, beans and chilli peppers among the earliest cultivars. Some consider the introduction of maize farming in the region, which occurred at least 4,000 years ago, to also reflect the arrival of the first Mayan-speaking peoples, while others interpret the widespread adoption of pottery and settled village life after 1000 bce in the Middle Predassic period to reflect the original entry of Maya in the region.⁵

The Maya area is at the south-eastern end of the larger culture area of Mesoamerica which extends as far north as the deserts of northern Mexico. Mesoamerica was one of the few regions globally to witness the independent rise of state-level society and the invention of writing, and was one of the major population centres of the ancient world. The peoples of Mesoamerica

4 James C. Chatters et al., ‘Late Pleistocene Human Skeleton and mtDNA Link Paleoamericans and Modern Native Americans', Science 344 (2014), 750-54.

5 Prudence M. Rice, Maya Calendar Origins: Monuments, Mythistory, and the Materialization of Time (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2009), pp. 150-1.