NOTES

References to Ancient Texts and Abbreviations Used in the Notes

Most of the ancient Greek (and Latin) texts referenced in the notes which follow have been translated many times.

1. Bull leaping: Andrew Shapland, ‘Jumping to Conclusions: Bull-Leaping in Minoan Crete’, Society and Animals 21 (2013): 194–207. ‘Lustral basins’: Ellen Adams, Cultural Identity in Minoan Crete: Social Dynamics in the Neopalatial Period (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017), 54–62. Human sacrifice: Yannis Sakellarakis and Efi Sapouna-Sakellarakis, Archanes: Minoan Crete in a New Light (Athens: Ammos, 1997), 268–311. Ritual cannibalism: S. Wall, J. H. Musgrave, and P. M. Warren, ‘Human Bones from a Late Minoan IB House at Knossos’, Annual of the British School at Athens 81 (1986): 333–338.

2. On the unresolved issues surrounding the dating of this event, see Oliver Dickinson, ‘The Aegean’, in The Cambridge World Prehistory, 3 vols., ed. Colin Renfrew and Paul Bahn (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 3.1860–1886 (see 1861); Cynthia Shelmerdine, ‘Background, Sources, and Methods’, in The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age, ed. Cynthia Shelmerdine (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 6; Adams, Cultural Identity, 4–8.

3. Jan Driessen and Colin Macdonald, The Troubled Island: Minoan Crete Before and After the Santorini Eruption (Liège and Austin: Universite de Liège and University of Texas at Austin, 1997). On the geology of the eruption, see Christos Doumas, Thera: Pompeii of the Ancient Aegean (London: Thames & Hudson, 1983) and W. L. Friedrich, Fire in the Sea, the Santorini Volcano: Natural History and the Legend of Atlantis, trans. A. R. McBirney (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999); Dickinson, ‘Aegean’, 1873.

4. Louise Schofield, The Mycenaeans (London: British Museum Press, 2007), 28.

5. Most succinctly summarised in Geoffrey Horrocks, Greek: A History of the Language and Its Speakers, 2nd ed. (Medford, MA, and Oxford: Wiley Blackwell, 2014), 21. See also Daniel Pullen, ‘The Early Bronze Age in Greece’, in Shelmerdine, Aegean Bronze Age, 19–46 (see 38–41 for a summary of the main theories).

6. Colin Renfrew, Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins (London: Jonathan Cape, 1987); Paul Heggarty and Colin Renfrew, ‘Western and Central Asia: Languages’, in Renfrew and Bahn, Cambridge World Prehistory, 3.1678–1699.

7. Schofield, Mycenaeans, 32–47.

8. See ‘Palace of Nestor Excavations, Pylos, Greece, Featuring the Grave of the Griffin Warrior’, http://www.griffinwarrior.org.

9. Pia de Fidio, ‘Mycenaean History’, in A Companion to Linear B: Mycenaean Greek Texts and their World [hereafter: CLB], 3 vols., ed. Yves Duhoux and Anna Morpurgo-Davies (Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium: Peeters, 2008, 2011, 2014), 1.81–114 (see 88).

10. Jack Davis, ‘Minoan Crete and the Aegean Islands’, in Shelmerdine, Aegean Bronze Age, 186–208; Adams, Cultural Identity, 225–227.

11. Philip Betancourt, ‘Minoan Trade’, in Shelmerdine, Aegean Bronze Age, 209–229 (see 217); Janice Crowley, ‘Mycenaean Art and Architecture’, in the same volume, 258–288 (see 260–261); Jack Davis and Sharon Stocker, ‘The Gold Necklace from the Grave of the Griffin Warrior at Pylos’, Hesperia 87, no. 4 (2018): 611–632.

12. Christos Doumas, The Wall-Paintings of Thera (Athens: The Thera Foundation, 1992), 47 and plates 26–29.

13. See (more cautiously) James Clinton Wright, ‘Early Mycenaean Greece’, in Shelmerdine, Aegean Bronze Age, 230–257 (see 251).

14. Adams, Cultural Identity, 54–62; J. A. MacGillivray, J. Driessen, and L. H. Sackett, The Palaikastro Kouros. A Minoan Chryselephantine Statuette and Its Aegean Bronze Age Context (London: British School at Athens, 2000); John Younger and Paul Rehak, ‘Minoan Culture: Religion, Burial Customs, and Administration’, in Shelmerdine, Aegean Bronze Age, 165–185 (see 170).

15. Yannis Galanakis, Efi Tsitsa, and Ute Günkel-Maschek, ‘The Power of Images: Re-examining the Wall Paintings from the Throne Room at Knossos’, Annual of the British School at Athens 112 (2017): 47–98; Mycenaean-style burials in the region of Knossos: Laura Preston, ‘A Mortuary Perspective on Political Changes in Late Minoan II–IIIB Crete’, American Journal of Archaeology 108 (2004): 321–348; Lesley Fitton, Minoans (London: British Museum, 2002), 189–191.

16. Laura Preston, ‘Late Minoan II to IIIB Crete’, in Shelmerdine, Aegean Bronze Age, 310–326; de Fidio, ‘Mycenaean History’, 90.

17. J. Driessen, ‘Chronology of the Linear B Texts’, CLB 1.69–79 (see 71–72, 76); J. Bennet, ‘The Geography of the Mycenaean Kingdoms’, CLB 2.137–168 (see 150). See also Ester Salgarella, Aegean Linear Script(s): Rethinking the Relationship Between Linear A and Linear B (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020).

18. John Bennet, ‘Linear B and Homer’, CLB 3.187–233 (see 203).

19. Driessen, ‘Chronology’, 77; C. Shelmerdine, ‘Iklaina Tablet IK X1’, in Pierre Carlier, E?tudes myce?niennes 2010 (Pisa: Fabrizio Serra, 2012), 75–77.

20. Shelmerdine, ‘Background’, 13.

21. Crowley, ‘Mycenaean Art’, 259; Stefan Hiller, ‘Mycenaean Religion and Cult’, CLB 2.169–211 (see 180 for lyre players at Thebes); Bennet, ‘Linear B’, 216–219.

22. Younger and Rehak, ‘Minoan Culture’, 169–170, 181, 183n11; Schofield, Mycenaeans, 89, 151, 168–169; Crowley, ‘Mycenaean Art’, 280.

23. Paul Halstead and John Barrett, eds., Food, Cuisine and Society in Prehistoric Greece (Oxford: Oxbow, 2004); Barbara Olsen, Women in Mycenaean Greece: The Linear B Tablets from Pylos and Knossos (London: Routledge, 2014).

24. Schofield, Mycenaeans, 78–79 (quoted); see also Sigrid Deger-Jalkotzy, ‘Decline, Destruction, Aftermath’, in Shelmerdine, Aegean Bronze Age, 387–414 (see 388–389); Oliver Dickinson, The Aegean from Bronze Age to Iron Age (London: Routledge, 2006), 36, 42.

25. Cynthia Shelmerdine and John Bennet, ‘Mycenaean States: Economy and Administration’, in Shelmerdine, Aegean Bronze Age, 289–309 (see 298–303). Defences at Pylos: Deger-Jalkotzy, ‘Decline’, 388, 408n9. On Thebes, see Vassilis Aravantinos, ‘Mycenaean Thebes: Old Questions, New Answers’, Actes des journees d’archeologie et de philologie myceniennes 54 (2010): 51–72 (on fortifications, see 54).

26. John Bennet, ‘Palaces and Their Regions: Geographical Analysis of Territorial Exploitation in Late Bronze Age Crete and Greece’, Pasiphae: Rivista di Filologia e Antichità Egee 11 (2017): 151–173 (see 159–160, 168); see also Bennet, ‘Geography’, 148–157.

27. Gary Beckman, Trevor Bryce, and Eric Cline, The Ahhiyawa Texts (Atlanta, GA: Society of Biblical Literature, 2011), 61 (quoted), 63, 67–68, 101–122; Joachim Latacz, Troy and Homer: Towards a Solution of an Old Mystery (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 121–128.

28. E. Cline and S. Stannish, ‘Sailing the Great Green Sea? Amenhotep III’s “Aegean List” from Kom el-Hetan, Once More’, Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections 3, no. 2 (2011): 6–16; Latacz, Troy, 128–133; de Fidio, ‘Mycenaean History’, 96–98; Bennet, ‘Geography’, 158–162.

29. For the first possibility, see Jorrit Kelder, The Kingdom of Mycenae (Bethesda, MD: CDL Press, 2010). For the ‘confederacy’ alternative, first proposed by Christopher Mee, see Beckman et al., Ahhiyawa Texts, 4–6. For a range of views, see Jorrit Kelder and Willemijn Waal, eds., From ‘Lugal.gal’ to ‘Wanax’: Kingship and Political Organisation in the Late Bronze Age Aegean (Leiden: Sidestone, 2019).

30. Beckman et al., Ahhiyawa Texts, 269–270.

31. Beckman et al., Ahhiyawa Texts, 270–271, for text see 81, 95 (‘Indictment of Madduwatta’); Kelder, Kingdom, 23–25.

32. Schofield, Mycenaeans, 102–115; Christopher Mee, ‘Mycenaean Greece, the Aegean, and Beyond’, in Shelmerdine, Aegean Bronze Age, 362–386 (364–365 quoted).

33. de Fidio, ‘Mycenaean History’, 93; L. Garcia Ramon, ‘Mycenaean Onomastics’, CLB 2.213–251 (see 219–229).

34. Mee, ‘Mycenaean Greece’, 371–372; Latacz, Troy, 105–110, 118, 301.

35. Beckman et al., Ahhiyawa Texts, 269–270.

36. Thebes: Duhoux, ‘Mycenaean Anthology’, 381–389. Pylos: Sharon R. Stocker and Jack L. Davis, ‘Animal Sacrifice, Archives, and Feasting at the Palace of Nestor’, Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens 73, no.

37. Colin Renfrew, ‘Systems Collapse as Social Transformation: Catastrophe and Anastrophe in Early State Societies’, in Transformations: Mathematical Approaches to Culture Change, ed. Colin Renfrew and Kenneth Cooke (New York: Academic Press, 1979), 481–506; Joseph Tainter, The Collapse of Complex Societies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988).

38. Tainter, Collapse, 193, see also 4–5, 92, 110, 118–123.

39. Tainter, Collapse, 199–203.

40. See, most fully, Eric Cline, 1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2014).

41. The fullest ancient source is Plutarch, ‘Life of Theseus’ (written c. 100 CE). For modern reinterpretations of Minoan civilisation and related myths, see Nicoletta Momigliano and Alexandre Farnoux, eds., Cretomania: Modern Desires for the Minoan Past (Abingdon: Routledge, 2017); Nicoletta Momigliano, In Search of the Labyrinth: The Cultural Legacy of Minoan Crete (London: Bloomsbury, 2020).

42. Duhoux, ‘Mycenaean Anthology’, 262.

43. Momigliano, In Search, 190–196.

44. Sigmund Freud, The Interpretation of Dreams, trans. J. Strachey, Penguin Freud Library, vol. 4 (London: Penguin, 1991), 362–366.

45. See, for example, Natalie Haynes, Pandora’s Jar: Women in the Greek Myths (London: Picador, 2020).

46. Freud himself thought there could be a historical connection between the two: Sigmund Freud, Moses and Monotheism, trans. J. Strachey, Penguin Freud Library, vol. 13 (London: Penguin, 1991), 312–313; Cathy Gere, The Tomb of Agamemnon: Mycenae and the Search for a Hero (London: Profile, 2006), 135–137; Nicoletta Momigliano, ‘Introduction: Cretomania—Desiring the Minoan Past in the Present’, in Momigliano and Farnoux, Cretomania, 1–14 (see 3, and chaps. 5 and 8 in that volume). No historical matriarchy: Younger and Rehak, ‘Minoan Culture’, 182.

47. Barry Strauss, The Trojan War: A New History (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006), 7; Latacz, Troy, 283–287. For a useful summary, see Naoise Mac Sweeney, Troy: Myth, City, Icon (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2018), 32–35.

48. For the archaeology of Troy, see Mac Sweeney, Troy, 49–60. ‘Traditional’ date: Lowell Edmunds, ‘Myth in Homer’, in A New Companion to Homer, ed. Ian Morris and Barry Powell (Leiden and New York: Brill, 2011), 415–441 (see 434); Bennet, ‘Linear B’, 196.

49. Bennet, ‘Linear B’, 221–222.

50. See, for example, Od. 14.233–241; Hesiod, Works and Days 155–175.

Chapter 2: ‘Homer’s World, Not Ours’

1. Ian Morris, Archaeology as Cultural History: Words and Things in Iron Age Greece (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000), 206 (quoted); see also Anthony Snodgrass, The Dark Age of Greece: An Archaeological Survey of the Eleventh to the Eighth Centuries (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1971), 2.

2. Southwestern Peloponnese: Pia de Fidio, ‘Mycenaean History’, in A Companion to Linear B: Mycenaean Greek Texts and Their World, ed. Yves Duhoux and Anna Morpurgo-Davies [hereafter: CLB], 3 vols. (Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium: Peeters, 2008, 2011, 2014), 1.81–114 (see 103); see also Louise Schofield, The Mycenaeans (London: The British Museum Press, 2007), 170–185; Snodgrass, Dark Age, 364–367; Jonathan Hall, A History of the Archaic Greek World, ca. 1200–479 BCE, rev. ed. (Medford, MA, and Oxford: Wiley Blackwell, 2014), 60–62.

3. Ian Morris, ‘Early Iron Age Greece’, in The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World, ed. Walter Scheidel, Ian Morris, and Richard Saller (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 211–241 (see 217); Lesley Fitton, Minoans (London: British Museum, 2002), 196.

4. Athens: Robin Osborne, Greece in the Making, 1200–479 BCE (London: Routledge, 1996), 47–48. Lefkandi: Osborne, Greece, 41–43; Ian Morris, ‘Homer and the Iron Age’, in A New Companion to Homer, ed. Ian Morris and Barry Powell (Leiden and New York: Brill, 2011), 535–559 (see 543–544); Morris, Archaeology, 218–221, 228–238; Hall, History, 62–63. Absence of exports from Lefkandi: Osborne, Greece, 43.

5. Morris, Archaeology, 198–201, 208–209; Morris, ‘Early Iron Age’, 234.

6. Geoffrey Horrocks, Greek: A History of the Language and Its Speakers, 2nd ed. (Medford, MA, and Oxford: Wiley Blackwell, 2014), 13–24; Hall, History, 44–56. For the suggestion, adopted here, that the dialects developed in situ after the Mycenaean collapse, see Oliver Dickinson, The Aegean from Bronze Age to Iron Age (London: Routledge, 2006), 54, and, more theoretically, Jonathan Hall, Ethnic Identity in Greek Antiquity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 153–170.

7. Susan Sherratt, ‘Visible Writing: Questions of Script and Identity in Early Iron Age Greece and Cyprus’, Oxford Journal of Archaeology 22, no. 3 (2003): 225–242 (see 225, 237).

8. Barry Powell, ‘Homer and Writing’, in Morris and Powell, New Companion, 3–32 (see 4–18); Osborne, Greece, 107–112; Hall, History, 56–59; James Whitley, The Archaeology of Ancient Greece (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 128.

9. See further the comparative tables in Osborne, Greece, 110–111 and Powell, ‘Homer’, 15. On the uniqueness of the invention, see Powell, ‘Homer’, 18.

10. This paragraph substantially follows Richard Janko, ‘From Gabii and Gordion to Eretria and Methone: The Rise of the Greek Alphabet’, Bulletin of the Institute for Classical Studies 58, no. 1 (2015): 1–32.

11. Sherratt, ‘Visible Writing’, 228. For the ‘Cup of Philion’, see Janko, ‘Gabii’, 3–6. ‘Nestor’s Cup’: Powell, ‘Homer’, 23 (quoted, my translation); Osborne, Greece, 116–118.

12. Barry Powell, Homer and the Origin of the Greek Alphabet (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 119–186; Powell, ‘Homer’, 22–25. Words and images: John Bennet, ‘Linear B and Homer’, CLB 3.187–233 (see 219). Quoted: translator’s introduction, in Hesiod, Works and Days, trans. A. E. Stallings (London: Penguin 2018), xxiv.

13. Janko, ‘Gabii’, 24–25, which slightly updates Richard Janko, Homer, Hesiod and the Hymns: Diachronic Development in Epic Diction (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982).

14. For the Iliad, see Joachim Latacz, Troy and Homer: Towards a Solution of an Old Mystery (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 187–192; for the Odyssey: Od. 1.91, 106, 133 (suitors, introduced at 1.245); 1.68–70 (Cyclops); 8.448 (Circe).

15. Richard Martin, ‘Introduction to Richmond Lattimore’s Iliad’, in The Iliad of Homer, trans. Richard Lattimore (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011 [translation first published 1951]), 43; Powell, Homer and the Origin, 229.

16. See, for example, the proposals of Powell, Homer and the Origin, 221–237 and M. L. West, The Making of the Iliad: Disquisition and Analytical Commentary (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011).

17. Horrocks, Greek, 44–49; Geoffrey Horrocks, ‘Homer’s Dialect’, in Morris and Powell, New Companion, 193–217 (on Mycenaean elements, see 201–203); C. J. Ruijgh, ‘Mycenaean and Homeric Language’, CLB 2.253–298.

18. Martin West, ‘Homer’s Meter’, in Morris and Powell, New Companion, 218–237; Ruijgh, ‘Mycenaean’, 257–258; Bennet, ‘Linear B’, 215.

19. On the ‘epic cycle’, see, for example, Malcolm Willcock, ‘Neoanalysis’, in Morris and Powell, New Companion, 173–189 (see 175–176, 184–185). Ancient preference for the Iliad: Michael Haslam, ‘Homeric Papyri and Transmission of the Text’, in the same volume, 55–100 (see 56).

20. Oliver Taplin, ‘Homer’, in The Oxford History of Greece and the Hellenistic World, ed. John Boardman, Jasper Griffin, and Oswyn Murray (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), 47–81 (see 47).

21. Robert Lamberton, ‘Homer in Antiquity’, in Morris and Powell, New Companion, 33–54.

22. Pantelis Michelakis and Maria Wyke, eds., The Ancient World in Silent Cinema (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013).

23. Il. 12.462–466, trans. Lattimore.

24. C. P. Cavafy, The Collected Poems: Includes Parallel Greek Text, ed. Anthony Hirst, trans. Evangelos Sachperoglou (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 36–39 (my translation).

25. Il. 5.304, 12.383, 12.449–462, 20.286. ‘Age of heroes’ (an expression not used by Homer): Hesiod, Works and Days 155–175.

26. Bennet, ‘Linear B’, 209.

27. Warrior Vase: Il. 13.132; Schofield, Mycenaeans, 120–121 and plate 68; Lefkandi: Il. 23.171–177 and Martin, ‘Introduction’, 36.

28. Chariots: Frank Stubbings, ‘Arms and Armour’, in A Companion to Homer, ed. Alan Wace and Frank Stubbings (London: Macmillan, 1962), 504–522 (see 521–522). Cremation: Dickinson, Aegean from Bronze Age, 73, 180–181, 188–189. Conclusion: see, for example, Ian Morris, ‘The Use and Abuse of Homer’, Classical Antiquity 5, no. 1 (1986): 81–138; E. S. Sherratt, ‘“Reading the Texts”: Archaeology and the Homeric Question’, Antiquity 64 (1990): 807–824.

29. Il. 2.484–877 (2.485 and 487 quoted, trans. Lattimore).

30. Trojan allies: Il. 2.816–877; see also 1.38 (Tenedos); 9.128–129 (Lesbos); 21.141–143 and 154–158 (Paionia and River Axios). Olympus: Barbara Graziosi, Homer (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016), 49. See also (controversially), Latacz, Troy, 219–228.

31. G. S. Kirk, The Iliad: A Commentary, Vol. 1: Books 1–4 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 168–189, 237–240, 248–249, 262–263. For the most recent restatement of the argument that the origin of the ‘Catalogue’ is Mycenaean, see Latacz, Troy, 219–247. For a range of views and further reading, see Bennet, ‘Linear B’, 204, 205.

32. Thuc. 1.3; Il. 2.683–684; Jonathan Hall, Hellenicity: Between Ethnicity and Culture (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2002), 53–54.

33. For the latter proposal, see E. S. Sherratt, ‘The Trojan War: History or Bricolage?’ Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 53 (2010): 1–18; Naoise Mac Sweeney, Troy: Myth, City, Icon (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2018), 35–36.

34. David Konstan, ‘“To Hellenikon Ethnos”: Ethnicity and the Construction of Ancient Greek Identity’, in Ancient Perceptions of Greek Ethnicity, ed. Irad Malkin (Washington, DC: Center for Hellenic Studies, 2001), 29–50 (see 31–32). Hector and fatherland: Il. 12.243, 15.496–497, 17.157, 24.500. On language and identity in the Iliad, see Il. 2.867 and Hall, Hellenicity, 111–113.

35. Il. 1.493–611; Robert Parker, ‘Greek Religion’, in Griffin and Murray, Oxford History, 306–329 (see 306).

36. Respectively, Il. 9.411–416 (and see also Sarpedon’s words at Il. 12.322–328); Il. 22.106–110, 22.305–306, trans. Lattimore. ‘Generations of leaves’: Il. 6.146–150, 21.464–466.

37. Graziosi, Homer, 81–91.

38. Od. 8.522–530, quoted from Homer, The Odyssey, trans. Emily Wilson (New York: W. W. Norton, 2018), and compare Il. 9.592–594.

39. Il. 11.670–760; Od. 21.17–33; Od. 24.357–360 (quoted), trans. Wilson.

40. Od. 9.252–256, trans. Wilson. The translator is unusually lenient towards this cannibal giant, see ‘Introduction’, 20–22. See also Od. 1.182–186, 8.161–165, 14.288–300, 15.415–484, 20.382–383. Phoenician traders, for once, get a good press at Od. 13.271–297.

41. Od. 17.288–290, trans. Wilson; see also Il. 19.162–163.

42. Il. 9.186–194 (189 quoted, trans. Lattimore); Od. 1.326–353, 1.369–371, 8.44–108, 8.255–368, 8.470–539, 9.5–11, 17.519–521, 22.330–377.

43. Hesiod, Theogony 22–34; Hesiod, Theogony, Works and Days, trans. M. L. West (Oxford: Oxford University Press, The World’s Classics, 1988), 3. Compare Il. 1.1–7, 2.483–493, 2.761–762 and Od. 1.1–6.

44. Hesiod, Works and Days: respectively, 727–728, 177–178, 188–189, 575, trans. Stallings.

45. Anthony Snodgrass, Archaic Greece: The Age of Experiment (London: Dent, 1980), 20–24; Ian Morris, ‘Early Iron Age’, 211–241 (see 236); see also Brian Lavelle, Archaic Greece: The Age of New Reckonings (Medford, MA: Wiley Blackwell, 2020).

Chapter 3: Inventing Politics, Discovering the Cosmos

1. Robin Osborne, Greece in the Making: 1200–479 BCE (London: Routledge, 1996), 121–125, 197–200.

2. Plato, Phaedo 109b (my translation).

3. Osborne, Greece, 122, 179–180 (Spartan colonies); 129 (‘every other year’).

4. Jonathan Hall, A History of the Archaic Greek World, ca. 1200–479 BCE, 2nd ed. (Medford, MA, and Oxford: Wiley Blackwell, 2014), 97–100; Irad Malkin, A Small Greek World: Networks in the Ancient Mediterranean (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 162–164.

5. Malkin, Small Greek World, 4, 22, 158; Cyprian Broodbank, The Making of the Middle Sea: A History of the Mediterranean from the Beginning to the Emergence of the Classical World (London: Thames & Hudson, 2013), 524–535.

6. Ian Morris, ‘Early Iron Age Greece’, in The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco–Roman World, ed. Walter Scheidel, Ian Morris, and Richard Saller (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 211–241 (see 241).

7. Aristotle, Politics 3.5.14.

8. Aristotle, Politics 3.5.13; Paul Cartledge, Democracy: A Life, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018), 15, 37–38; Paul Cartledge, Thebes: The Forgotten City of Ancient Greece (New York: Abrams, 2020), 66–67.

9. Mogens Hansen, Polis: An Introduction to the Ancient Greek City-State (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 11.

10. Aristotle, Politics 1.1.9 (Homer, Iliad, 9.63, trans. Lattimore).

11. ‘Law of the city of Dreros, 650–600 BCE’, in Charles Fornara, ed. and trans., Translated Documents of Greece and Rome, Vol. 1: Archaic Times to the End of the Peloponnesian War (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977; 2nd ed., 1983), 13; James Whitley, ‘Literacy and Law-Making: The Case of Archaic Crete’, in Archaic Greece: New Approaches and New Evidence, ed. Nick Fisher and Hans van Wees (London: Duckworth, 1998), 317–331.

12. Matthew Simonton, Classical Greek Oligarchy: A Political History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2017), 1, citing Pindar, Pythian Odes 2.86–88 (probably written shortly after 470 BCE). See also Hdt. 3.80–82 (written at least thirty years later, although referring—fictitiously—to an event in c. 522 BCE) and Cartledge, Democracy, 93–94.

13. Tyrants: Anthony Snodgrass, Archaic Greece: The Age of Experiment (London: Dent, 1980), 120–121; Osborne, Greece, 192–197; equality before law (isonomia): Cartledge, Democracy, 32, 55, 75.

14. Hall, History, 188.

15. Snodgrass, Archaic Greece, 42–47 (42 cited); Jonathan Hall, Ethnic Identity in Greek Antiquity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 34–36; Catherine Morgan, ‘Ethne, Ethnicity and Early Greek States, ca. 1200–480 BC: An Archaeological Perspective’, in Ancient Perceptions of Greek Ethnicity, ed. Irad Malkin (Washington, DC: Center for Hellenic Studies, Harvard University, 2001), 75–112.

16. Paul Cartledge, The Spartans: An Epic History (London: Pan, 2013), 68 (prohibition on trade), 27, 39 (helots). Ratio: Hdt. 9.28; Simon Hornblower, The Greek World, 479–323 BCE, 4th ed. (Abingdon: Routledge, 2011), 11.

17. Hall, History, 243–251.

18. Cartledge, Spartans, 27–28, 32–34, 37, 57–68.

19. The primary sources are Hdt. 5.62–65 and Ath.Pol. 20–21. For modern assessments, see Osborne, Greece, 291–299; Hall, History, 235–243; Cartledge, Democracy, 58–75.

20. Malkin, Small Greek World, 32–33, 192–194.

21. Hdt. 1.141–151; Jonathan Hall, Hellenicity: Between Ethnicity and Culture (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2002), 67–73.

22. Alcaeus, Fr. 112; Aristotle, Politics 3.5.14, 4.3.11.

23. Snodgrass, Archaic Greece, 97–104, 151–154.

24. Robert Parker, ‘Greek Religion’, in The Oxford History of Greece and the Hellenistic World, ed. John Boardman, Jasper Griffin, and Oswyn Murray (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), 306–329.

25. Catherine Morgan, Athletes and Oracles: The Transformation of Olympia and Delphi in the Eighth Century BC (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 147, 203–205; Hall, Hellenicity, 134–168; Michael Scott, Delphi and Olympia: The Spatial Politics of Panhellenism in the Archaic and Classical Periods (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 256–273.

26. Hall, Hellenicity, 164–165; Scott, Delphi, 265.

27. Pindar, Isthmian Odes 2.23; see also Thuc. 5.49–50; Isocrates, Panegyricus 43; Judith Swaddling, The Ancient Olympic Games (London: British Museum, 1980), 11–12.

28. Osborne, Greece, 243–244; Morgan, Athletes, 212–223; Zinon Papakonstantinou, Sport and Identity in Ancient Greece (Abingdon: Routledge, 2019).

29. Modern opinion is divided on when a ‘Hellenic’ consciousness became established throughout the Greek-speaking world. Malkin (Small Greek World) argues for the eighth century BCE; the case for the fifth is made by Jonathan Hall, Ethnic Identity, passim. I follow the second approach here.

30. Archilochus, Frs. 32–46, trans. M. L. West, Greek Lyric Poetry (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), 5–6.

31. The classic study is K. J. Dover, Greek Homosexuality, 3rd ed. (London: Bloomsbury, 2016), first published in 1978 and more recently challenged by James Davidson, The Greeks and Greek Love: A Radical Reappraisal of Homosexuality in Ancient Greece (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2007).

32. Sappho, Frs. 16, 31, trans. West, Greek Lyric Poetry, 37, 38–39. See further Jim Powell, The Poetry of Sappho: An Expanded Edition, Featuring Newly Discovered Poems (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019).

33. John Boardman, Greek Sculpture: The Archaic Period, 2nd ed. (London: Thames & Hudson, 1991), 18–21, 169–170.

34. Boardman, Greek Sculpture, 22, 66.

35. Cartledge, Thebes, 52–54 (author’s translation) and plate 5; Robert Parker, ‘Greek Religion’, in Griffin and Murray, Oxford History, 306–329 (see 318).

36. Boardman, Greek Sculpture, 73 (author’s translation) and fig. 108a; Mary Beard, How Do We Look: The Eye of Faith (London: Profile, 2018), 41–43, 82–84 and figs. 12, 37.

37. Robin Osborne, The Transformation of Athens: Painted Pottery and the Creation of Classical Greece (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2018), 123; for rare exceptions, see 124–125 and figs. 5.1–5.2.

38. Snodgrass, Archaic Greece, 158, 187; John Boardman, Early Greek Vase Painting (London: Thames & Hudson, 1998), 263–266.

39. Osborne, Transformation, 25, 46–47, 126–128 and figs. 2.9, 5.3–5.4.

40. M. L. West, Early Greek Philosophy and the Orient (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971, reissued 2001); Jonathan Barnes, Early Greek Philosophy (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1987), 9–99; Osborne, Greece, 316 (on proof).

41. Xenophanes, Fr. B23 (quoted), B14, B15, trans. Barnes, Early Greek Philosophy, 95.

42. Heraclitus, Fr. 30, trans. G. S. Kirk, Heraclitus: The Cosmic Fragments (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1954), 307; see also 284–287, 314–317; Barnes, Early Greek Philosophy, 18–19, 38–39.

43. Hdt. 1.6; Osborne, Greece, 344–347, 350; Malkin, Small Greek World, 40–41.

44. Hdt. 1.79–86, 1.154–176.

45. Hdt. 1.163–169; Herodotus, The Histories, trans. Aubrey de Selincourt, rev. ed. (London: Penguin, 2003; translation first published 1954), 73 (quoted); Malkin, Small Greek World, 149–152.

46. Hdt. 5.28–38; Osborne, Greece, 318–322, 325; Fornara, Translated Documents, 45–46.

47. Hdt. 1.152–153.

48. Hdt. 5.73, trans. de Selincourt, 338. For date and context of these events, see Osborne, Greece, 292–295; Cartledge, Thebes, 82–84.

49. Hdt. 5.97–103.

50. Hdt. 6.32, trans. de Selincourt, 370; John Marincola, ‘Notes’, in Herodotus, Histories, 656–657; Osborne, Greece, 322–325.

51. Hdt. 5.100–106, trans. de Selincourt, 354.

Chapter 4: The First World Wars and the ‘Classical’ Age

1 Hdt. 5.78–89, 6.87–94; Robin Osborne, Greece in the Making, 1200–479 BCE (London: Routledge, 1996), 325–328.

2. Hdt. 6.65–84; Cartledge, The Spartans: An Epic History (London: Pan, 2013), 95–96, 87–89; Osborne, Greece, 335–336.

3. Hdt. 6.48–49, 7.133, Herodotus, The Histories, trans. Aubrey de Selincourt, rev. ed. (London: Penguin, 2003; translation first published 1954), 458 (quoted).

4. Hdt. 6.100–108; Cartledge, Spartans, 102.

5. Hdt. 6.109–117; Michael Llewellyn Smith, Olympics in Athens 1896: The Invention of the Modern Olympic Games (London: Profile, 2004), 179–191.

6. Osborne, Greece, 334–336; Cartledge, Spartans, 111–114.

7. Osborne, Greece, 331–333; Paul Cartledge, Democracy: A Life, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018), 70–73.

8. Plutarch, Themistocles 5–6, 22 (quoted), trans. Robin Waterfield in Plutarch, Greek Lives (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 86–87, 101. Herodotus covers only the initiatives of Themistocles in the final years of the decade (Hdt. 7.143–145; Osborne, Greece, 337).

9. Hdt. 7.89, 7.184–186; John Marincola, ‘Notes’, in Herodotus, Histories, 668n25, 668n27, 671n59; see also, for example, Osborne, Greece, 337.

10. Hdt. 7.157–167; Diod.Sic. 11.20–24; Osborne, Greece, 344–346.

11. Charles Fornara, ed. and trans., Translated Documents of Greece and Rome, Vol. 1: Archaic Times to the End of the Peloponnesian War (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977; 2nd ed., 1983), 59, reproduces the list inscribed on the base of the ‘serpent column’, originally set up at Delphi shortly after the end of the war and removed to Constantinople in the fourth century CE, where it can still be seen in central Istanbul’s old Hippodrome. See also Herodotus (Hdt. 9.28–30, 9.81), whose narrative differs in some details from the list preserved on the column, and Osborne, Greece, 341–342.

12. Hdt. 7.176, 7.200.

13. Hdt. 8.53, trans. de Selincourt, 517.

14. The fullest early account of the battle is Aesch. Pers. 353–470, on which see below. See also Hdt. 8.74–92.

15. Hdt. 9.13, 9.25–70, 9.90–105; Paul Cartledge, After Thermopylae: The Oath of Plataea and the End of the Graeco–Persian Wars (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 8, 88–121.

16. See, for example, Barry Strauss, The Battle of Salamis: The Naval Encounter that Saved Greece—and Western Civilization (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004); Victor Davis Hanson, Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise of Western Power (New York: Doubleday, 2001).

17. John Stuart Mill, ‘Grote’s History of Greece I’, in Essays on Philosophy and the Classics. Collected Works of John Stuart Mill, ed. J. M. Robson (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1978), 271–306 (see 273); Alexandra Lianeri, ‘Historiography in Grote’s History’, in Cultural Responses to the Persian Wars: Antiquity to the Third Millennium, ed. Emma Bridges, Edith Hall and P. J. Rhodes (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 339. See also the same volume passim for many other examples.

18. Aesch. Pers. 807–808, 819–822.

19. Aesch. Pers. 790–794 (794 quoted, my literal translation).

20. Aesch. Pers. 241–242, 591–594, 402–405 (the last quoted, my translation).

21. Aristophanes, Frogs 1029–1030 (first performed in 405 BCE); Aristophanes, Frogs and Other Plays, trans. David Barrett (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1964), 173.

22. Hdt. 1 (Preface). On known works written in prose before Herodotus, see Marincola, ‘Introduction’, in Herodotus, Histories, xix.

23. Jonathan Hall, A History of the Archaic Greek World, ca. 1200–479 BCE, rev. ed. (Medford, MA, and Oxford: Wiley Blackwell, 2014), 324.

24. Hdt. 1.1–4; Edith Hall, Inventing the Barbarian: Greek Self-Definition Through Tragedy (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), 1–100; Kostas Vlassopoulos, Greeks and Barbarians (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013); Jonathan Hall, History, 308–310.

25. Hdt. 7.9, trans. de Selincourt, 417–418.

26. Hdt. 8.22 (appeal to Ionians in Xerxes’s fleet), 9.67 (Thebes), 9.12–13 (Argives, see also 7.148–152).

27. Hdt. 8.144 (my literal translation); compare 1.4, 1.86, 7.139, 7.145. For discussion of the passage in the wider context of national identity, see, for example, Samuel Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (London: Simon & Schuster, 1997), 42; Anthony D. Smith, The Cultural Foundations of Nations: Hierarchy, Covenant, and Republic (Oxford: Blackwell, 2008), 57–58; Azar Gat, The Long History and Deep Roots of Political Ethnicity and Nationalism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 74. On the passage itself, see Jonathan Hall, Ethnic Identity in Greek Antiquity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 44–47 and Hellenicity: Between Ethnicity and Culture (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2002), 189–194; David Konstan, ‘“To Hellenikon Ethnos”: Ethnicity and the Construction of Ancient Greek Identity’, in Ancient Perceptions of Greek Ethnicity, ed. Irad Malkin (Washington, DC: Center for Hellenic Studies, 2001), 29–50 (see 32–34).

28. Aristotle, Poetics 1449b.

29. John Boardman, Greek Sculpture: The Classical Period, corrected ed. (London: Thames & Hudson, 1991), 33–50 (39 on individual nuances).

30. Mary Beard, How Do We Look: The Eye of Faith (London: Profile, 2018), 34. For the origin of civic statuary in the early fifth century BCE, see Boardman, Greek Sculpture, 24–26.

31. Boardman, Greek Sculpture, 52–54 and figs. 34–35, 38–39; Robin Osborne, The Transformation of Athens: Painted Pottery and the Creation of Classical Greece (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2018), 240–242.

32. Osborne, Transformation, see, respectively, 114–115, 221–224 and fig. 9.6, 146–150, 83–84.

33. Osborne, Transformation, 209, 248–249, 252–253; Boardman, Greek Sculpture, 21.

34. Samantha Martin McAuliffe and John K. Papadopoulos, ‘Framing Victory: Salamis, the Athenian Acropolis, and the Agora’, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 71 (2012): 332–361; Johanna Hanink, The Classical Debt: Greek Antiquity in an Era of Austerity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2017), 42–44.

35. For the fullest accounts of the project, see Robin Frances Rhodes, Architecture and Meaning on the Athenian Acropolis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995) and T. Leslie Shear Jr., Trophies of Victory: Public Buildings in Periklean Athens (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2016).

36. Plato, Apology 38a (my translation).

37. Plato, Theaetatus 152a, citing Protagoras, and see also Plato, Protagoras; Peter Pormann, The Cambridge Companion to Hippocrates (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018).

38. Thuc. 1.76; Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War, trans. Martin Hammond, with Introduction and Notes by P. J. Rhodes (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 38 (translation slightly adapted), see also 2.36, 5.89.

39. Cartledge, Democracy, 105–122; P. J. Rhodes, A History of the Classical Greek World, 478–323 BC, 2nd ed. (Medford, MA, and Oxford: Wiley Blackwell, 2010), 61–67.

40. Rhodes, History, 59–61, 70–72; 64 (efficiency); Cartledge, Democracy, 114–116. For ancient assessments, see Thuc. 2.65; Plutarch, Pericles 9.

41. Thuc. 2.37, trans. Johanna Hanink, How to Think About War: An Ancient Guide to Foreign Policy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2019), 43, 45.

42. Simon Hornblower, The Greek World, 479–323 BCE, 4th ed. (Abingdon: Routledge, 2011), 121–128; Rhodes, History, 32. On resources, see Hornblower, Greek World, 127; Thuc. 1.141–142.

43. Thuc. 1.23, 1.88, trans. Hammond, 13, 43. For modern assessments, see Hornblower, Greek World, 108–115; Rhodes, History, 86–95; Donald Kagan, The Peloponnesian War (London: Harper Perennial, 2005), 41–54. For Spartan antipathy to ‘democratic imperialism’, see Victor Davis Hanson, A War Like No Other (New York: Random House, 2005), 13.

44. Thuc. 1.1; Kagan, Peloponnesian War, xxii; Paul Cartledge, Thebes: The Forgotten City of Ancient Greece (New York: Abrams, 2020), 132.

45. See Hanson, War, xvi, 3–4, 324; Hanink, How to Think, xv–xvi, xlviii–liv; Kagan, Peloponnesian War, xxiii; Cartledge, Thebes, 134.

46. Thuc. 2.48–54 (2.51 quoted, trans. Hammond, 98).

47. Thuc. 5.84–116 (116 quoted, trans. Hammond, 307).

48. Thuc. 6.31, trans. Hammond, 323; 7.16–17, 7.26–27; Kagan, Peloponnesian War, 267–268 (numbers).

49. Thuc. 6.18, trans. Hammond, 318.

50. Thuc. 8.18, trans. Hammond, 423; see also 8.43. For earlier negotiations, see Kagan, Peloponnesian War, 154–155; Thuc. 2.7, 2.67, 4.50 and, in 413–412 BCE, 8.5–6, 8.12.

51. Rhodes, History, 152, 172.

52. Diod.Sic. 13.98, trans. Kagan, Peloponnesian War, 458 (quoted). For the fullest early account of these events, see Xen. Hell. 1.6.24–1.7.34.

53. Xen. Hell. 2.2.3; Xenophon, A History of My Times, trans. Rex Warner, with introduction and notes by George Cawkwell (London: Penguin, 1979), 104.

54. Thuc. 5.26 and P. J. Rhodes, ‘Introduction’, in Thucydides, Peloponnesian War, xxv–xxviii; Xen. Hell. 2.2.23, trans. Warner, 108 (quoted, slightly adapted).

Chapter 5: Cultural Capital

1. Paul Cartledge, Democracy: A Life, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018), 224–225.

2. Paul Cartledge, Thebes: The Forgotten City of Ancient Greece (New York: Abrams, 2020), 167.

3. Xenophon, Anabasis; Xenophon, The Persian Expedition, trans. Rex Warner, with a new introduction by G. Cawkwell (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972).

4. Xen. Hell. 3.5.1–2; Xenophon, A History of My Times, trans. Rex Warner, with introduction and notes by George Cawkwell (London: Penguin, 1979), 174, and editor’s note citing Hellenica Oxyrrynchia 7.5, an Athenian account contemporary with Xenophon’s and known only from papyrus fragments, of unknown authorship; Simon Hornblower, The Greek World, 479–323 BCE, 4th ed. (Abingdon: Routledge, 2011), 220, 229.

5. Xen. Hell. 5.1.30–31; P. J. Rhodes, A History of the Classical Greek World, 478–323 BC, 2nd ed. (Medford, MA, and Oxford: Wiley Blackwell, 2010), 229–230; Hornblower, Greek World, 233. On the meaning and status of the term autonomy at this time, see Emily Mackil, Creating a Common Polity: Religion, Economy, and Politics in the Making of the Greek Koinon (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012), 92, 94, 115n17, 116n29.

6. Xen. Hell. 7.5.26, trans. Warner, 403.

7. Xen. Hell. 7.5.17, trans. Warner, 400; Paus. 9.15.4 (my translation), see also Pausanias, Guide to Greece, trans. Peter Levi, 2 vols. (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1979), 1.339, and Paus. 8.11.5–9, trans. Levi, 2.398–399.

8. Xen. Hell. 7.5.27, trans. Warner, 403; Cawkwell, ‘Introduction’, in Xenophon, History, 7; see also Arnold Toynbee, The Greeks and Their Heritages (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981), 60, 66. For an opposite assessment, see Moses Finley, The Use and Abuse of History, rev. ed. (London: Chatto and Windus, 1986), 121–122; Jonathan Hall, Ethnic Identity in Greek Antiquity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 227–228.

9. Cartledge, Democracy, 176–178.

10. Isocrates, Antidosis 1–10, written 354–353 BCE. On Plato, Isocrates, and the written word, see Andrea Wilson Nightingale, ‘Sages, Sophists, and Philosophers: Greek Wisdom Literature’, in Literature in the Greek and Roman Worlds: A New Perspective, ed. Oliver Taplin (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 156–191 (see 172–185); on the writing of speeches and the influence of the written versions, see also Chris Carey, ‘Observers of Speeches and Hearers of Action: The Athenian Orators’, in the same volume, 192–216 (see 215–216).

11. Isocrates, Panegyricus 185; trans. George Norlin, Isocrates, 3 vols. (London and New York: Loeb Classical Library, 1928), 1.239.

12. Isocrates, Panegyricus 81; Takis Poulakos, Speaking for the Polis: Isocrates’ Rhetorical Education (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1997), 84, 114n9.

13. Isocrates, Panegyricus 47–50 (50 quoted, my translation). See also Antidosis 299, in which Isocrates goes further, to imagine the whole of Greece as a city-state, with Athens as its sole ‘city’ and all the other poleis as mere villages by comparison, and Jonathan Hall, Hellenicity: Between Ethnicity and Culture (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2002), 207–210, 219.

14. Robin Lane Fox, ‘Philip of Macedon: Accession, Ambitions, and Self-Presentation’, in Brill’s Companion to Ancient Macedon: Studies in the Archaeology and History of Macedon, 650 BC–300 AD, ed. Robin Lane Fox (Leiden and Boston, MA: Brill, 2011), 335–366 (see 335–336), revising the commonly accepted 359 BCE.

15. Theopompus of Chios (fourth century BCE), cited in translation by Hornblower, Greek World, 268; Justin 9.8.10, trans. Ian Worthington, Philip II of Macedonia (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008), 195 (on this later Latin source see 212–13); Worthington, Philip, 4, 195, 201–203, 208.

16. Hornblower, Greek World, 275, 282.

17. Demosthenes, Philippics 3.30–31 (my translation); see also Ian Worthington, Demosthenes of Athens and the Fall of Classical Greece (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 220–223.

18. Worthington, Demosthenes, 265; Worthington, Philip, 166–167.

19. Isocrates, Philip 107–108, 154; M. B. Hatzopoulos, ‘Macedonians and Other Greeks’, in Lane Fox, Companion, 51–78 (see 67–69). See also Edward Harris, Aeschines and Athenian Politics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), 124–154.

20. Jonathan Hall, ‘Contested Ethnicities: Perceptions of Macedonia Within Evolving Definitions of Greek Identity’, in Ancient Perceptions of Greek Ethnicity, ed. Irad Malkin (Washington, DC: Center for Hellenic Studies, 2001), 159–186.

21. See Hatzopoulos, ‘Macedonians’; Rhodes, History, 334–335; Hornblower, Greek World, 94–100. On personal names, see Miltiade Hatzopoulos, ‘“L’Histoire par les noms” in Macedonia’, in Greek Personal Names: Their Value as Evidence, ed. Simon Hornblower and Elaine Matthews (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 99–117.

22. Hatzopoulos, ‘Macedonia’, 65–66. On Stageira, see Worthington, Philip, 75 and 254n5; Robin Lane Fox, ‘Philip’s and Alexander’s Macedon’, in Lane Fox, Companion, 367–391 (see 372).

23. Geoffrey Horrocks, Greek: A History of the Language and Its Speakers, 2nd ed. (Medford, MA, and Oxford: Wiley Blackwell, 2014), 73–80; Olivier Masson, ‘Macedonian Language’, in The Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3rd ed., Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 905–906 (4th ed., 2012, available online).

24. Demosthenes, Philippics 4.31–35; Worthington, Demosthenes, 224–227.

25. Lycurgus, Against Leocrates 1.50; Worthington, Demosthenes, 246–254; Worthington, Philip, 147–151; Cartledge, Thebes, 226–231.

26. There is no single surviving ancient source for these details, which have been pieced together by modern historians from several different sources. See Rhodes, History, 356–358; Hornblower, Greek World, 286–288; Worthington, Demosthenes, 255–259, 262–264; Worthington, Philip, 158–163.

27. Isocrates, ‘Letter 3’: 5 (my translation); see trans. Norlin, 3.402–407; Worthington, Philip, 167–170.

28. Worthington, Demosthenes, 48.

29. This and the previous paragraph are based closely on the two ancient sources for these events: Diod. Sic. 16.91–95 (written during the first century BCE) and Justin 9.6–7 (a later abridgement of a Latin history, also of the first century BCE). There are discrepancies between them in some details, which have been differently interpreted by modern historians. For the date (July or October), see A. B. Bosworth, Conquest and Empire: The Reign of Alexander the Great (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 23; Lane Fox, ‘Philip’s and Alexander’s Macedon’, 385. See also Paul Cartledge, Alexander the Great: The Hunt for a New Past (London: Pan Macmillan, 2005), 55–56, 63–65; Worthington, Philip, 172–193.

30. Justin 11.2.

31. Worthington lists the ancient sources (Philip, 269n45) and some modern approaches and contrasting verdicts (269–270n56). For the view that Alexander was not involved, with references to earlier scholarship on the subject, see Bosworth, Conquest, 25–26. Alexander’s guilt has been proposed by Ernst Badian, ‘The Death of Philip II’, Phoenix 17 (1963), 244–250; and Worthington, Philip, 182–186.

32. Arrian, Anabasis 6.24.2–3, 7.1.4, 7.2.1, 7.28.2–3; for translation, see (respectively) Arrian, The Campaigns of Alexander, trans. Aubrey de Selincourt, rev. with introduction and notes by J. R. Hamilton (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1971), 335–336, 349, 350, 395–396.

33. Arrian, Anabasis 4.8–15, trans. de Selincourt, 213–226; Plutarch, Alexander 48–55; Cartledge, Alexander, 263–265.

34. Manolis Andronikos, Vergina: The Royal Tombs (Athens: Ekdotiki Athinon, 1984), 62–78, 97–197, 226–233; for subsequent opinions and bibliography, see Worthington, Philip, 234–241.

35. Diod.Sic. 16.92.1, 17.3.1; Worthington, Philip, 187.

36. Diod.Sic. 17.4.4–7; Bosworth, Conquest, 189–194, 198.

37. Arrian, Anabasis 1.7.2, trans. de Selincourt, 55 (quoted); Diod.Sic. 17.8–9; Plutarch, Alexander 11, trans. Robin Waterfield, Plutarch: Greek Lives (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 321.

38. Diod.Sic. 17.14–15; Plutarch, Alexander 11; Arrian, Anabasis 1.8–11; Bosworth, Conquest, 195–197; Cartledge, Thebes, 234–239.

39. Arrian, Anabasis 1.12.

40. Bosworth, Conquest, 35, 259, noting irreconcilable discrepancies in the extant ancient sources.

41. Arrian, Anabasis 1.16.7; Plutarch, Alexander 16.8 (my translation). The text is all but identical in both, and so must be presumed to be an accurate transcription.

42. Arrian, Anabasis 1.16, trans. de Selincourt, 75; Cartledge, Alexander, 96–98.

43. Cartledge, Alexander, 45, 134–135.

44. Arrian, Anabasis 2.14.9, trans. de Selincourt, 128.

45. Bosworth, Conquest, 75–79.

46. Arrian, Anabasis 3.15–17.

47. Respectively, Arrian, Anabasis 3.19; Plutarch, Alexander 37–38.

48. Arrian, Anabasis 5.26.2, trans. de Selincourt, 293.

49. Hugh Bowden, Alexander the Great: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 84, 89–92.

50. J. R. Hamilton, ‘Introduction’, in Arrian, Campaigns, 30–32; Cartledge, Alexander, 75–76, 122–124.

51. On economic recovery, see Bosworth, Conquest, 204–205; on the building of the Theatre of Dionysus, see Johanna Hanink, Lycurgan Athens and the Making of Classical Tragedy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 92–125; on the making of the Athenian ‘brand’, see the same work, 5–22, 230 (Athens as ‘capital of theatre’) and Johanna Hanink, The Classical Debt: Greek Antiquity in an Era of Austerity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2017), 32–69.

52. Armand Leroi, The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science (London: Bloomsbury, 2014); Edith Hall, Aristotle’s Way: Ten Ways Ancient Wisdom Can Change Your Life (London: Penguin, 2019).

53. Aristotle, Nicomachaean Ethics 10.7.8; Bosworth, Conquest, 278–290; Cartledge, Alexander, 215–227.

54. Mary Beard, How Do We Look: The Eye of Faith (London: Profile, 2018), 85–90; John Boardman, Greek Art, 4th ed. (London: Thames & Hudson, 1996), 160–164.

55. Bosworth, Conquest, 220.

56. Diod.Sic. 18.8.2–5; Bosworth, Conquest, 221.

57. Diod.Sic. 18.9.5, 18.10.2–3 (my translation).

58. Diod.Sic. 18.12–18; Cartledge, Alexander, 100–103; Cartledge, Democracy, 217.

59. Graham Shipley, The Greek World After Alexander, 323–30 BC (London: Routledge, 2000), 1; R. Malcolm Errington, A History of the Hellenistic World, 323–30 BC (Oxford: Blackwell, 2008), 8; Angelos Chaniotis, Age of Conquests: The Greek World from Alexander to Hadrian 336 BC–AD 138 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2018), 1, 196–197.

Chapter 6: ‘Becoming Greek’

1. The principal ancient source for these events is Diod.Sic. 18–20; see in English: Diodorus of Sicily, The Library, Books 16–20: Philip II, Alexander the Great and the Successors, trans. Robin Waterfield (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019), 179–423; the fullest modern account is Robin Waterfield, Dividing the Spoils: The War for Alexander the Great’s Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011). For a succinct overview see Winthrop Lindsay Adams, ‘The Hellenistic Kingdoms’, in The Cambridge Companion to the Hellenistic World, ed. Glenn Bugh (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 28–51.

2. Ashoka inscription: translation and commentary in Susan Sherwin-White and Amelie Kuhrt, From Samarkhand to Sardis: A New Approach to the Seleucid Empire (London: Duckworth, 1993), 101–102. On the early Buddhist text, Questions of King Milinda, written in Pali, and its relation to Menander, the ‘Indo-Greek king who ruled from 155–130 BCE, from a capital at Sagala (Sialkot)’ in the Punjab, see Richard Stoneman, The Greek Experience of India: From Alexander to the Indo-Greeks (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2019), 365–374.

3. John Boardman, The Greeks in Asia (London: Thames & Hudson, 2015), 82, 185. On Taxila and the history of these kingdoms, see 138–142; on coins, see 94–101. See also Stoneman, Greek Experience, 377–404.

4. Rachel Mairs, The Hellenistic Far East: Archaeology, Language, and Identity in Greek Central Asia (Oakland: University of California Press, 2014), xvii–xxii; for Greek texts with accompanying translations see 283–284 (cited in my own translation). See also Sherwin-White and Kuhrt, Samarkhand, 177–179; Boardman, Greeks, 83–86, and Peter Thonemann, The Hellenistic Age: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018), 1–3.

5. G. G. Aperghis, The Seleukid Royal Economy: The Finances and Financial Administration of the Seleukid Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 37–38 (on Seleucia-on-the-Tigris); Sherwin-White and Kuhrt, Samarkhand, 149–159.

6. Sherwin-White and Kuhrt, Samarkhand, 142–148 (language and Berossus, 148 cited), 38–39, 154–155 (temple patronage); see also Paul Kosmin, The Land of the Elephant Kings: Space, Territory, and Ideology in the Seleucid Empire (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004), 113–114, 207–208.

7. Paul Kosmin, Time and Its Adversaries in the Seleucid Empire (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2018), 21–26 and passim.

8. Strabo 17.1.6, cited and discussed by Sally-Ann Ashton, ‘Ptolemaic Alexandria and the Egyptian Tradition’, in Alexandria: Real and Imagined, ed. Anthony Hirst and Michael Silk (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2004), 15–40 (see 16–17).

9. Peter Clayton, ‘The Pharos at Alexandria’, in The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, ed. Peter Clayton and Martin Price (London: Routledge, 2013), 138–157.

10. Franck Goddio, Alexandria: The Submerged Royal Quarters (London: Periplous, 1998); Ashton, ‘Ptolemaic Alexandria’.

11. Herwig Maehler, ‘Alexandria, the Mouseion, and Cultural Identity’, in Hirst and Silk, Alexandria, 1–14. See also Graham Shipley, The Greek World After Alexander, 323–30 BC (London: Routledge, 2000), 214–215, 240–243.

12. G. E. R. Lloyd, Greek Science After Aristotle (London: Chatto and Windus, 1973), 3–8, 49–50, 75–85.

13. For the story of Ptolemaic patronage, see ‘Aristeas to Philocrates’ (2nd century BCE?), trans. M. Hadas in Michel Austin, The Hellenistic World from Alexander to the Roman Conquest: A Selection of Ancient Sources in Translation, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), no. 261; James Carleton Paget, ‘Jews and Christians in Ancient Alexandria: From the Ptolemies to Caracalla’, in Hirst and Silk, Alexandria, 143–166 (see 149–151).

14. Ashton, ‘Ptolemaic Alexandria’; Alan Bowman, Egypt After the Pharaohs, 332 BC–AD 642 (London: British Museum, 1996), 168–169; R. Malcolm Errington, A History of the Hellenistic World, 323–30 BC (Oxford: Blackwell, 2008), 146–147; J. G. Manning, The Last Pharaohs: Egypt Under the Ptolemies, 305–30 BC (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010), 205–206.

15. Maehler, ‘Alexandria’, 6–7 (‘cultural apartheid’); F. W. Walbank, The Hellenistic World (London: Fontana, 1992), 110, 214; Errington, History, 154–155. For an obsequious Greek response at the time, see Theocritus, Idylls 17.128–134.

16. ‘A third century [BCE] description of central Greece’, often attributed to Heracleides of Crete, trans. Austin in Hellenistic World, no. 101 (p. 198 cited); compare Strabo 17.1.6–10, describing Alexandria some three hundred years later (translated in the same volume, no. 292).

17. See, for example, Shipley, Greek World, 128–130; Paul Cartledge, Democracy: A Life, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018), 241–245.

18. Johanna Hanink, Lycurgan Athens and the Making of Classical Tragedy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 225–243; N. J. Lowe, Comedy (New Surveys in the Classics) (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 63–80.

19. Walbank, Hellenistic World, 178–181; Shipley, Greek World, 176–191.

20. Diod.Sic. 20.54.1; for date, see Shipley, Greek World, 51.

21. Theocritus, Idylls 1.

22. Lloyd, Greek Science, 40–49 (40, 47 cited).

23. Polyb. 8.3–7; Polybius, The Rise of the Roman Empire, trans. Ian Scott-Kilvert, selected with an introduction by F. W. Walbank (London: Penguin, 1979), 364–368; Plutarch, Marcellus 14–17, 19.

24. For a Greek analysis, written while the historian was living as a hostage in Rome between 167 and 150 BCE, see Polyb. 6.11–58, trans. Scott-Kilvert, 311–352. For its limitations, and modern correctives, see Mary Beard, SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome (London: Profile, 2015), 184–192; Cartledge, Democracy, 247–263. On Polybius see further below.

25. Polyb. 1.3.3–4 (my translation); trans. Scott-Kilvert, 43; see also Polyb. 5.105.3–4, trans. Scott-Kilvert, 301; Angelos Chaniotis, Age of Conquests: The Greek World from Alexander to Hadrian 336 BC–AD 138 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2018), 148–149.

26. Polyb. 18.45.9, 18.46.15, trans. Scott-Kilvert, 515 (slightly adapted), 517.

27. Shipley, Greek World, 380, citing Livy 42.51. See also Austin, Hellenistic World, no. 94.

28. Polyb. 29.27, trans. Austin, Hellenistic World, 374 (no. 211).

29. Thonemann, Hellenistic Age, 27. The view expressed here is closer to Walbank, Hellenistic World, 157–158. For the history of such institutions, see Emily Mackil, Creating a Common Polity: Religion, Economy, and Politics in the Making of the Greek Koinon (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012).

30. Beard, SPQR, 212–213.

31. Paus. 7.16–17, trans. Austin, Hellenistic World, no. 100 (second century CE); Dio Cassius 21.72 (second to third century CE).

32. Walbank, Hellenistic World, 228, citing Hellanicus of Lesbos (fifth century BCE); Erich Gruen, ‘Greeks and Non-Greeks’, in Bugh, Cambridge Companion, 295–314 (see 300–302).

33. See, for example, Caroline Bishop, Cicero, Greek Learning, and the Making of a Roman Classic (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019).

34. Beard, SPQR, 170–172 (see 170, citing the second century BCE Latin author Porcius Licinius, as quoted by Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights 17.21); on this passage, see also Tim Whitmarsh, Greek Literature and the Roman Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 9; see also Walbank, Hellenistic World, 247–249; Horace, Epistles 2.1, trans. Christopher Smart, The Works of Horace, rev. ed. (London: G. Bell, 1891), quoted.

35. Boardman, Greeks, 64–80; Sherwin-White and Kuhrt, Samarkhand, 84–90, 223–225.

36. Isaiah 43.1–3, 10–13; Seth Schwartz, The Ancient Jews from Alexander to Muhammad (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 24–29 (28 quoted).

37. Josephus, Jewish Antiquities 12.1–2 (first century CE); Simon Sebag Montefiore, Jerusalem: The Biography (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2011), 65–67.

38. 2 Macc. 4.10–13 (my translation); see also 1 Macc. 1.10–14, trans. Austin, Hellenistic World, no. 217; Josephus, Jewish Antiquities 12.5.1; Shipley, Greek World, 308; Schwartz, Ancient Jews, 41–42; Sherwin-White and Kuhrt, Samarkhand, 226–227.

39. 1 Macc. 1.44–56; 2 Macc. 6.1–9; Austin, Hellenistic World, no. 217; Shipley, Greek World, 309–310. For the voluntary submission of the Samaritans of Mount Gerizim, see Josephus, Jewish Antiquities 12.5.5 and Sherwin-White and Kuhrt, Samarkhand, 229.

40. 2 Macc. 11.24–25; Shipley, Greek World, 311; Schwartz, Ancient Jews, 45.

41. Schwartz, Ancient Jews, 46–52. The First Book of Maccabees (1 Macc.) was written in the later first century BCE in either Hebrew or Aramaic and later translated into Greek, the version known today. The Second (2 Macc.), probably written some decades later, is a condensation of an older original and was written in Greek (Shipley, Greek World, 266; Austin, Hellenistic World, no. 216). Josephus, writing in Greek during the second half of the first century CE, under Roman rule, is the third principal source for these events.

42. Virgil, Aeneid 1.272; Beard, SPQR, 193–197.

43. Appian, Mithridatic Wars 4.22–23 (my translation); Shipley, Greek World, 389; Beard, SPQR, 270.

44. Appian, Mithridatic Wars 6.38, trans. Shipley, Greek World, 391 (slightly adapted), and see 472n62 for archaeological reports.

45. Shipley, Greek World, 393; Joel Allen, The Roman Republic and the Hellenistic Mediterranean: From Alexander to Caesar (Medford, MA: Wiley Blackwell, 2020), 179, 201, 207–208.

46. Plutarch, Pompey 45–46; Beard, SPQR, 273–278; Allen, Roman Republic, 229–230.

47. Shipley, Greek World, 212–213; Allen, Roman Republic, 188, 201–202.

48. Plutarch, Antony 54; C. P. Cavafy, The Collected Poems: Includes Parallel Greek Text, ed. Anthony Hirst, trans. Evangelos Sachperoglou (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 52–55 (my translation).

49. Shipley, Greek World, 397; Beard, SPQR, 340, 354; Allen, Roman Republic, 254–256.

Chapter 7: Rome’s Greek Empire

1. Mary Beard, SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome (London: Profile, 2015), 384, 404–406. For the scandalous lives of the emperors, see Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars (late first century CE); Tom Holland, Dynasty: The Rise and Fall of the House of Caesar (London: Little, Brown, 2015), 174–419.

2. Beard, SPQR, 480–483.

3. An exception in the east was the province of Dacia, the region of the Balkans to the north of the Danube, that was conquered by Trajan in the early first century CE. There, Latin was spoken (and Latin-derived Romanian still is, today). In the west, significant Greek-speaking communities existed at Rome, Carthage, and Lugdunum in Gaul (today’s Lyon). On possible exceptions in Sicily and southern Italy, see next note.

4. Kathryn Lomas, Rome and the Western Greeks, 350 BC–AD 200: Conquest and Acculturation in Southern Italy (London and New York: Routledge, 1993), 96–97, 189–190. For the possibility of limited survival for Greek in Sicily until the fifth century, see Fergus Millar, A Greek Roman Empire: Power and Belief Under Theodosius II (408–450) (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2006), 15; Roger Wilson, Sicily Under the Roman Empire: The Archaeology of a Roman Province, 36 B.C.–A.D. 535 (Warminster: Aris and Phillips, 1989), 318.

5. Susan Alcock, The Landscapes of Roman Greece (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 168–169; Angelos Chaniotis, Age of Conquests: The Greek World from Alexander to Hadrian 336 BC–AD 138 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2018), 281.

6. Simon Swain, Hellenism and Empire: Language, Classicism and Power in the Greek World AD 50–250 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1996), 69; A. J. S. Spawforth, Greece and the Augustan Cultural Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 38–39; Greg Woolf, ‘Becoming Roman, Staying Greek: Culture, Identity and the Civilizing Process in the Roman East’, Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society 40 (1994): 116–143.

7. Chaniotis, Age of Conquests, 277, 283–288; Robin Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians in the Mediterranean World from the Second Century AD to the Conversion of Constantine (London: Penguin, 1988), 12–14. ‘Long Hellenistic age’: Chaniotis, Age of Conquests, 3 and passim; see also, argued on different grounds, Alcock, Landscapes, 218.

8. G. E. R. Lloyd, Greek Science After Aristotle (London: Chatto and Windus, 1973), 113–153 (113 quoted, see also 154, 177); ‘Introduction’, in Galen, Method of Medicine, Books 1–4, ed. and trans. Ian Johnston and G. H. R. Horsley (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, Loeb Classics Series, 2011), xlix, on Galen’s life see xii–xxiii.

9. Plutarch, Moralia 813D–813F, 824E–824F (my translation), cited and discussed in Alcock, Landscapes, 150; see also Paul Cartledge, Democracy: A Life, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018), 272. The essay is conventionally known by the Latin title Praecepta gerendae reipublicae, meaning roughly ‘principles of statecraft’.

10. Andrew Erskine, ‘Introduction’, in Plutarch, Hellenistic Lives, trans. Robin Waterfield (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016), xii.

11. Geoffrey Horrocks, Greek: A History of the Language and Its Speakers, 2nd ed. (Medford, MA, and Oxford: Wiley Blackwell, 2014), 125–141; Swain, Hellenism, 1 (citing Philostratus, Lives of the Sophists 481), 6–21, 410 and passim.

12. Spawforth, Greece, 11–12, 271 (Graecia vera); 103–106 (Persian Wars); 31–32, 55, 241, 264–270 (Second Sophistic). On the image of Alexander from Augustus to the mid-third century, see Tony Spawforth, ‘“Macedonian Times”: Hellenistic Memories in the Provinces of the Roman Near East’, in Greeks on Greekness: Viewing the Greek Past Under the Roman Empire, ed. David Konstan and Suzanne Saïd (Cambridge: Cambridge Philological Society, Supplementary vol. 5, 2006), 1–26 (see 20–21, 25).

13. Chaniotis, Age of Conquests, 251–252, citing and translating Inscriptiones Graecae (Berlin: Berlin Academy of Sciences, 1873–), 7.2713; see also Spawforth, Greece, 236–238. For Nero’s tour of Greece in 66–67 CE, see Edward Champlin, Nero (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 53–61. On the Corinth Canal, see Alcock, Landscapes, 141–142.

14. Spawforth, Greece, 249–264; Alcock, Landscapes, 166–168; Tim Whitmarsh, Greek Literature and the Roman Empire: The Politics of Imitation (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 24–25.

15. Lucian: Simon Goldhill, ‘Introduction. Setting an Agenda: “Everything Is Greek to the Wise”’, in Being Greek Under Rome: Cultural Identity, the Second Sophistic and the Development of Empire, ed. Simon Goldhill (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2001), 1–23; Whitmarsh, Greek Literature, 122–128. Heliodorus, Aethiopica 10.41. Plutarch: Whitmarsh, Greek Literature, 116–118. See also Jonathan Hall, Hellenicity: Between Ethnicity and Culture (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2002), 224–226.

16. Suzanne Saïd, ‘The Rewriting of the Athenian Past: From Isocrates to Aelius Aristides’, in Konstan and Saïd, Greeks on Greekness, 47–60; Clifford Ando, ‘Imperial Identities’, in Local Knowledge and Microidentities in the Imperial Greek World, ed. Tim Whitmarsh (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 17–45 (see 45); Chaniotis, Age of Conquests, 315–316.

17. Marcus Aurelius 9.29; Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, trans. Maxwell Staniforth (London: Penguin, 1964), 144. See also translator’s introduction in the same volume, 7–8, 18–21, and Whitmarsh, Greek Literature, 216–225. The original Greek title of the work means To Himself.

18. See, for example, Graham Shipley, The Greek World After Alexander, 323–30 BC (London: Routledge, 2000), 105–106.

19. Lucretius, De Rerum Natura 3.830–977.

20. See, for example, Lane Fox, Pagans, 118–119, 151–153, 161–162; Chaniotis, Age of Conquests, 355–382.

21. On death: Lane Fox, Pagans, 95–98. Mysteries of Isis in the second century: Apuleius, Metamorphoses 11.21, trans. E. J. Kenney (Apuleius, The Golden Ass [London: Penguin, 1998], 207, quoted). See more generally Hugh Bowden, Mystery Cults in the Ancient World (London: Thames & Hudson, 2010).

22. Of the five Greek novels of this period which survive complete, the best known are Longus, Daphnis and Chloe; Achilles Tatius, Leucippe and Cleitophon (both written in the late second century CE); and Heliodorus, Aethiopica. The last has long been dated to the late fourth century, wrongly in my view. For the arguments supporting a date around 215 CE, much closer to the other novels and to the Second Sophistic, to which it clearly belongs, see Swain, Hellenism, 423–424; Lane Fox, Pagans, 137–138; Roderick Beaton, The Medieval Greek Romance, 2nd ed. (London: Routledge, 1996), 73–74, 241n16. See also Northrop Frye, The Secular Scripture: A Study of the Structure of Romance (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1976).

23. Charles Freeman, A New History of Early Christianity (New Haven, CT, and London: Yale University Press, 2011), 18–19.

24. Paul, 1 Cor. 4.15, 9.14 (probably the earliest uses of the word in this sense).

25. The regularly cited biographical details of Paul’s origin come not from his own letters but from Acts (see 21.39, 22.28). For the inference that Paul’s father had been a freed slave, with a modern assessment of Paul’s background, see Freeman, New History, 48–49. On the importance of letters, see Richard Norris, ‘The Apostolic and Sub-apostolic Writings: The New Testament and the Apostolic Fathers’, in The Cambridge History of Early Christian Literature, ed. Frances Young, Lewis Ayres, and Andrew Louth (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 11–19 (see 11–12). On the language of early Christian texts, see Horrocks, Greek, 147–152.

26. Paul, Gal. 1.1, 1.4, 5.22–23, 5.14 (Authorized Version quoted).

27. Paul, 1 Cor. 15.3–5, 15.52, 15.55 (quoted).

28. Acts 11.26, 28.30–31.

29. Tacitus, Annals 15.44, trans. J. Jackson (Loeb Classical Library, vol. 5, 1937), 283. On the fire, see Champlin, Nero, 121–126, 178–185.

30. Freeman, New History, 72–96 (see 82 on Luke); Geza Vermes, Christian Beginnings: From Nazareth to Nicaea, AD 30–325 (London: Penguin, 2013), 115–133.

31. Celsus, On the True Doctrine: A Discourse Against the Christians, introduction and translation by R. Joseph Hoffman (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987).

32. Lane Fox, Pagans, 294–311; John Behr, ‘Social and Historical Setting’, in Young et al., Cambridge History, 55–70 (see 62–64).

33. See Lane Fox, Pagans, 317 for the ‘guess’ at 2 per cent in 250, but see also Averil Cameron, The Mediterranean World in Late Antiquity, AD 395–700, 2nd ed. (London: Routledge, 2012), 58–59 on the impossibility of making reliable estimates, even in the fourth and fifth centuries. For the lives and thought of second-century martyrs, see The Apostolic Fathers, Early Christian Writings, trans. Maxwell Staniforth, rev. with introduction and notes by Andrew Louth (London: Penguin, 1987).

34. The classic statement of Roman policy in the early second century is to be found in the brief exchange of letters on the subject between the emperor Trajan and his provincial governor in northern Anatolia, see Pliny the Younger, Letters 10.96–97. On martyrs and martyrdom, see Lane Fox, 419–492; Freeman, New History, 205–214. For second-century martyrs, see Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 4.117–128.

35. Lloyd, Greek Science, 151, citing Galen, On the Use of Parts 3.20.

36. Cited in Lane Fox, Pagans, 169, for discussion see 168–177.

37. Ronald Heine, ‘The Alexandrians’, in Young et al., Cambridge History, 117–130; Freeman, New History, 175–195; Vermes, Christian Beginnings, 210–211, 213–215. On the language used by these third-century authors, see Horrocks, Greek, 155.

38. Beard, SPQR, 387, 420, 423–424.

39. Fergus Millar, The Roman Empire and Its Neighbours, 2nd ed. (London: Duckworth, 1981), 216–217, 239–248. See also Peter Brown, The World of Late Antiquity, AD 150–750 (London: Thames & Hudson, 1971), 22–25; Averil Cameron, The Later Roman Empire: AD 284–340 (London: Fontana, 1993), 3–11. End of ‘epigraphic habit’: Lane Fox, Pagans, 14, 573–575, 582–583; Brown, World, 66–67.

40. Beard, SPQR, 527–529 (527 quoted); Myles Lavan, ‘The Spread of Roman Citizenship’, Past and Present 229 (2016): 3–46. The explanation of the measure as a means to raise taxes was first proposed by the Greek historian Dio Cassius, in his universal history written shortly afterwards (Dio Cassius 78.9). See also Alex Imrie, The Antonine Constitution, an Edict for the Caracallan Empire (Leiden and Boston, MA: Brill, 2018).

41. Lane Fox, Pagans, 425 (on motives), 450–459, 550–554. The fullest ancient sources are Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 7.10–12, and Lactantius, On the Deaths of the Persecutors 4–5, both written about half a century afterwards, the former in Greek, the latter in Latin.

42. Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 8.2, trans. G. A. Williamson and Andrew Louth (Eusebius, The History of the Church, rev. ed. [London: Penguin, 1989], 258–259); Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians, 592–595; Freeman, New History, 212.

43. Freeman, New History, 215–219 (percentage cited from 215). Lane Fox (Pagans, 592) suggests perhaps ‘only 4 or 5 percent’ by the end of the century.

44. Eusebius, Life of Constantine 3.13 (written shortly after 337); Eusebius, Life of Constantine (Oxford: Clarendon, 1999), trans. Averil Cameron and Stuart Hall, 265–266 (commentary).

45. Known as the ‘Edict of Milan’, versions are preserved by Lactantius (On the Deaths 48) and Eusebius (Ecclesiastical History 10.5). Both were written during the lifetime of Constantine. See also Timothy Barnes, Constantine: Dynasty, Religion and Power in the Later Roman Empire (Oxford: Blackwell, 2011), 93–94.

46. Eusebius, Life 1.28–29, trans. Cameron and Hall, 81, see also 204–210 for commentary. See also Peter Weiss, ‘The Vision of Constantine’, Journal of Roman Archaeology 16 (2003): 237–259 and discussion in Barnes, Constantine, 74–80.

47. Eusebius, Life 2.46, trans. Cameron and Hall, 111; for commentary, see 244; Barnes, Constantine, 110–111.

48. Eusebius, Life 4.62, trans. Cameron and Hall, 178.

49. For order as Constantine’s overriding consideration, see Freeman, New History, 228, 237; Cameron and Hall, ‘Introduction’, 46. On the executions of Crispus and his stepmother Fausta in 326, see The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, 3 vols. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971–1992), 1.233.

50. Paul Stephenson, Constantine: Unconquered Emperor, Christian Victor (London: Quercus, 2009), 305.

51. Chronicon Paschale, trans. Michael Whitby and Mary Whitby (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1989), 17–18 (written c. 630); Stephenson, Constantine, 190–211; Bettany Hughes, Istanbul: A Tale of Three Cities (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2017), 112–115.

Chapter 8: Becoming Christian

1. Eusebius, Life of Constantine 3.54; see also Timothy Barnes, Constantine: Dynasty, Religion and Power in the Later Roman Empire (Oxford: Blackwell, 2011), 111–113, 126–131 (following Eusebius); contrast Paul Stephenson, Constantine: Unconquered Emperor, Christian Victor (London: Quercus, 2009), 201–203.

2. Peter Brown, The World of Late Antiquity, AD 150–750 (London: Thames & Hudson, 1971), 98–103 (98 quoted).

3. Averil Cameron, The Mediterranean World in Late Antiquity, AD 395–700, 2nd ed. (London: Routledge, 2012), 76–81; Charles Freeman, A New History of Early Christianity (New Haven, CT, and London: Yale University Press, 2011), 274–284 (281 on Pachomius).

4. G. W. Bowersock, Julian the Apostate (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978), 21–45.

5. Julian, Oration 7.217c; Wolf Liebeschuetz, East and West in Late Antiquity: Invasion, Settlement, Ethnogenesis and Conflicts of Religion (Leiden and Boston, MA: Brill, 2015), 333–334.

6. Stephen Mitchell, A History of the Later Roman Empire, AD 284–641 (Oxford: Blackwell, 2007), 285–290; Bowersock, Julian, 16–17, 28–30; Brown, World, 93–94.

7. See farther Claudia Rapp, ‘Hellenic Identity, Romanitas, and Christianity in Byzantium’, in Hellenisms: Culture, Identity, and Ethnicity from Antiquity to Modernity, ed. Katerina Zacharia (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2008), 127–147; Anthony Kaldellis, Hellenism in Byzantium: The Transformations of Greek Identity and the Reception of the Classical Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), passim. On education, see Cameron, Mediterranean World, 130–134.

8. Joseph Tainter, The Collapse of Complex Societies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 128–152 and see Chap. 1 above; see also Walter Scheidel, Escape from Rome: The Failure of Empire and the Road to Prosperity (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2019), 127–131.

9. Fergus Millar, A Greek Roman Empire: Power and Belief Under Theodosius II (408–450) (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2006), 13–14; Michael Kulikowski, Imperial Tragedy: From Constantine’s Empire to the Destruction of Roman Italy, AD 363–568 (London: Profile, 2019), 54 (gold).

10. Millar, A Greek Roman Empire, 2–4, 7, 14–15, 84–97; Cameron, Mediterranean World, 27–28, 176–181. See also Anthony Kaldellis, Romanland: Ethnicity and Empire in Byzantium (Cambridge, MA: Belknap, Harvard University Press, 2019), 85–94.

11. Freeman, New History, 238–253, 298–305 (on the Council of Chalcedon, see 303–305); Mitchell, History, 318–319.

12. Mitchell, History, 242; Cameron, Mediterranean World, 58–59.

13. Socrates, Historia Ecclesiastica 7.15, trans. J. Stevenson, cited in Cameron, Mediterranean World, 29.

14. Kulikowski, Imperial Tragedy, 168 (‘jihadist terrorists’); Catherine Nixey, The Darkening Age: The Christian Destruction of the Classical World (London: Pan Macmillan, 2017), xix–xxi (Palmyra).

15. Olympic Games at Antioch: The Chronicle of John Malalas 17.13, trans. Elizabeth Jeffreys, Michael Jeffreys, and Roger Scott (Melbourne: Australian Association of Byzantine Studies, 1986), 236. On mimes and pantomimes: Ruth Webb, Demons and Dancers: Performance in Late Antiquity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008); Ruth Webb, ‘Mime and the Dangers of Laughter in Late Antiquity’, in Greek Laughter and Tears: Antiquity and After, ed. Margaret Alexiou and Douglas Cairns (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2017), 219–231 (see 228–229 for citations from Saint John Chrysostom, quoted). On survival of theatrical performances into the sixth century, see Brown, World, 180, 186; Cyril Mango, ‘Daily Life in Byzantium’, Jahrbuch der Osterreichischen Byantinistik 31 (1981): 337–353 (see 341–344).

16. Robin Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians in the Mediterranean World from the Second Century AD to the Conversion of Constantine (London: Penguin, 1988), 495–507; Freeman, New History, 261–273.

17. For a highly coloured contemporary account, see Procopius, Secret History 7.1–29, trans. G. Williamson and Peter Sarris, rev. ed. (London: Penguin, 2007), 28–30. The standard modern treatment remains Alan Cameron, Circus Factions: Blues and Greens at Rome and Byzantium (Oxford: Clarendon, 1976).

18. Chronicon Paschale, trans. Michael Whitby and Mary Whitby (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1989), 103–104; Malalas, Chronicle 17.1–2, trans. Jeffreys, 230–231; Peter Sarris, Empires of Faith: The Fall of Rome to the Rise of Islam, 500–700 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 135, 137; Peter Heather, Rome Resurgent: War and Empire in the Age of Justinian (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018), 83–85.

19. Malalas, Chronicle 18.1, trans. Jeffreys, 245 (on the author, see xxi–xxii); Procopius, Secret History 13.1–2, trans. Williamson and Sarris, 54. For contrasting opinions on the author and the nature of this work, see Averil Cameron, Procopius and the Sixth Century (London: Duckworth, 1985) and Anthony Kaldellis, Procopius of Caesarea: Tyranny, History, and Philosophy at the End of Antiquity (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004).

20. Codex Justinianus 1.1.1, trans. Mitchell, History, 270 (quoted), and see further 242–276; The Novels of Justinian: A Complete Annotated English Translation, ed. Peter Sarris, trans. J. D. Miller (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018), 439–440 (Novel 77), 929–932 (Novel 141) (homosexuality); Malalas, Chronicle 18.42, 18.47, trans. Jeffreys, 262, 264 (quoted).

21. Cameron, Mediterranean World, 136.

22. Procopius, Wars 1.24; Chronicon Paschale, trans. Whitby, 115–126; Sarris, Empires, 148–151; Heather, Rome Resurgent, 109–114.

23. Heather, Rome Resurgent, 120–123, 139–142, 164–179; Judith Herrin, Ravenna: Capital of Empire, Crucible of Europe (London: Allen Lane, 2020), 151–159. These events take up the greater part of Procopius, Wars, which remains the primary source.

24. Procopius, Buildings 1.2.9–12; Heather, Rome Resurgent, 181–182; Elena Boeck, The Bronze Horseman of Justinian in Constantinople: The Cross-Cultural Biography of a Mediterranean Monument (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2021).

25. Procopius, Buildings 1.1.30–54; Heather, Rome Resurgent, 192–195; Freeman, New History, 271–273.

26. Eusebius, Oration in Praise of the Emperor Constantine 1.6, delivered in the year 332 (my translation); I. A. Heikel, Eusebius Werke, vol. 1 (Die griechischen christlichen Schriftsteller 7) (Leipzig: Hinrichs, 1902), 195–259.

27. Merle Eisenberg and Lee Mordechai, ‘The Justinianic Plague: An Interdisciplinary Review’, Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies 43 (2019): 156–180 (see 171–173 on climate); Sarris, Empires, 158–159 (158 quoted), 174–176; John Haldon, The Empire That Would Not Die: The Paradox of Eastern Roman Survival, 640–740 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016), 221. Devastation in 539: Procopius, Wars 2.4; Secret History 18.20–21.

28. Procopius, Wars 2.10.4 (my translation). For causes of this war, see Wars 2.1–3 (2.1 for Chosroes’s accusation); Heather, Rome Resurgent, 218–219 (Antioch).

29. Procopius, Wars 2.23.17–18, 2.22.31, 2.22.33–34 (the last quoted, my translation); Sarris, Empires, 158–159; Kulikowski, Imperial Tragedy, 309–310. For global context, see Ian Morris, Why the West Rules—For Now: The Patterns of History, and What They Reveal About the Future (London: Profile, 2011), 346–347. On the number of victims, see Dionysios Stathakopoulos, A Short History of the Byzantine Empire (London: I. B. Tauris, 2014), 57, 78; see further Dionysios Stathakopoulos, Famine and Pestilence in the Late Roman and Early Byzantine Empire (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2004). Population of Constantinople in 540: Mark Whittow, The Making of Orthodox Byzantium, 600–1025 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1996), 56.

30. Malalas, Chronicle 18.92, trans. Jeffreys, 286–287; Paul Magdalino, ‘The History of the Future and Its Uses: Prophecy, Policy and Propaganda’, in The Making of Byzantine History: Studies Dedicated to Donald M. Nicol, ed. Roderick Beaton and Charlotte Roueche (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1993), 1–34 (see 6 for translated extract from Romanos, ‘On the Ten Virgins’, quoted, and 6–7 for popular attitudes in the 550s).

31. Herrin, Ravenna, 166–173, 188; for the origin of the imperial crown, see Malalas, Chronicle 13.8, trans. Jeffreys, 175.

32. Cameron, Mediterranean World, 172–173; Peter Frankopan, The Silk Roads: A New History of the World (London: Bloomsbury, 2015), 38–39, 54–55.

33. J. McCrindle, ed. and trans., The Christian Topography of Cosmas (London: Hakluyt Society, 1897), 367n7 (China); Cosmas Indicopleustes 2.147 (quoted, trans. McCrindle, 71).

34. Procopius, Secret History 12.14 (quoted, trans. Williamson and Sarris, 51–52); see also 18.1, 18.36–45. For the reading as satirical, I follow Heather, Rome Resurgent, 16–17.

35. Heather, Rome Resurgent, 330–331; Whittow, Making, 38–39, 42, 48, 68.

36. Theophylact Simocatta, History 8.6–8.13; trans. Michael Whitby and Mary Whitby (Oxford: Clarendon, 1986); Chronicon Paschale, trans. Whitby, 142–144. For these events as the start of the sequence that extends all the way to the end of the present chapter, see Whittow, Making, 69.

37. Whittow, Making, 73 (‘civil war’); Sarris, Empires, 242–243; Walter Kaegi, Heraclius, Emperor of Byzantium (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 37–40.

38. Chronicon Paschale, trans. Whitby, 150–153, and see translators’ note 423 on other early sources and the role of the Greens; Sarris, Empires, 244–245; Kaegi, Heraclius, 49–52.

39. Florin Curta, The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, c. 500 to 1050. The Early Middle Ages (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2011), 16–21.

40. James Howard-Johnston, ‘The Siege of Constantinople in 626’, in Constantinople and its Hinterland, ed. Cyril Mango and Gilbert Dagron (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1985), 131–142 (for the events of the siege and original sources see 139–141); Kaegi, Heraclius, 132–138.

41. Howard-Johnston, ‘The Siege’, 141.

42. The Chronicle of Theophanes, trans. Harry Turtledove (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982), 16; Sarris, Empires, 250, 252–253, 258; Mitchell, History, 460; Kaegi, Heraclius, 129, see also 113–114 citing Heraclius’s contemporary George of Pisidia.

43. Theophanes, Chronicle, trans. Turtledove, 29–30.

44. Sarris, Empires, 258, 260; Kaegi, Heraclius, 186, 194.

45. Kaegi, Heraclius, 205–207; P. J. Alexander, The Byzantine Apocalyptic Tradition (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), 38–51 (translation from Syriac of the ‘Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius’, including ‘King of the Greeks’), 50 quoted, and 151–184 (discussion). See also the Latin ‘Prophecy of the Tiburtine Sibyl’, in Ernst Sackur, Sibyllinische Texte und Forschungen: Pseudomethodius, Adso und tiburtinische Sibylle (Halle an der Saale: Max Niemeyer, 1898), 177–187 (‘king of the Romans’). For the possibility that the prophecy was inspired by Heraclius’s action rather than the other way round, see Magdalino, ‘The History’, 19; Petre Guran, ‘Genesis and Function of the “Last Emperor” Myth in Byzantine Eschatology’, Bizantinistica (Series 2) 7 (2006), 273–303 (see 296–302).

46. Socrates, Ecclesiastical History 1.16; Chronicon Paschale, trans. Whitby, 17.

Chapter 9: ‘The Eyes of the Universe’

1. John Haldon, Byzantium in the Seventh Century: The Transformation of a Culture, rev. ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 53–74, 104–109 (on cities); John Haldon, The Empire That Would Not Die: The Paradox of Eastern Roman Survival, 640–740 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016), 32–52.

2. Florin Curta, The Making of the Slavs: History and Archaeology of the Lower Danube Region, c. 500–700 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001); Florin Curta, The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, c. 500 to 1050. The Early Middle Ages (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2011), 48–109. Population: Averil Cameron, The Byzantines (Oxford: Blackwell, 2006), 32.

3. ‘Systems collapse’: Joseph Tainter, The Collapse of Complex Societies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 151–152, 202–203. Byzantine ‘dark age’: Michael Whitby, The Emperor Maurice and His Historian: Theophylact Simocatta on Persian and Balkan Warfare (Oxford: Clarendon, 1988), 355–358; Haldon, Byzantium, 425–435.

4. Anthony Kaldellis, ‘From “Empire of the Greeks” to “Byzantium”: The Politics of a Modern Paradigm-Shift’, in The Invention of Byzantium in Early Modern Europe, ed. Nathanael Aschenbrenner and Jake Ransohoff (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Center, 2021). See also Anthony Kaldellis, Romanland: Ethnicity and Empire in Byzantium (Cambridge, MA: Belknap, Harvard University Press, 2019), ix–xv; Claudia Rapp, ‘Hellenic Identity, Romanitas, and Christianity in Byzantium’, in Hellenisms: Culture, Identity, and Ethnicity from Antiquity to Modernity, ed. Katerina Zacharia (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2008), 127–147.

5. Peter Sarris, Empires of Faith: The Fall of Rome to the Rise of Islam, 500–700 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 284–286 (285 quoted, citing the Armenian History Attributed to Sebeos, trans. R. W. Thompson); Haldon, Empire, 42–43, 146.

6. Mark Whittow, The Making of Orthodox Byzantium, 600–1025 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1996), 104, 193. See also Haldon, Empire, 293–294 and passim.

7. John Haldon, ‘Greek Fire Revisited: Recent and Current Research’, in Byzantine Style, Religion and Civilization: In Honour of Sir Steven Runciman, ed. Elizabeth Jeffreys (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 290–325.

8. The Chronicle of Theophanes, trans. Harry Turtledove (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982), 88–91; Haldon, Byzantium, 80–84; Haldon, Empire, 52–54; Si Shepard, Constantinople AD 717–718: The Crucible of History (Oxford: Osprey, 2020), 60–75; Philip Mansel, Constantinople: City of the World’s Desire, 1453–1924 (London: Penguin, 1997).

9. Ian Morris, Why the West Rules—For Now: The Patterns of History, and What They Reveal About the Future (London: Profile, 2011), 353–354, 356–363; Judith Herrin, The Formation of Christendom, 2nd ed. (London: Phoenix, 2001); Chris Wickham, Framing the Early Middle Ages, 400–800 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005).

10. Leslie Brubaker and John Haldon, Byzantium in the Iconoclast Era, c. 680–850 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 75–77; Theophanes, Chronicle, trans. Turtledove, 103.

11. Theophanes, Chronicle, trans. Turtledove, 96–97 (quoted), 103–104, 112–113.

12. Peter Brown, The World of Late Antiquity, AD 150–750 (London: Thames & Hudson, 1971), 183 (changed attitude in seventh century); Whittow, Making, 142–143, 158 (divine favour).

13. Brubaker and Haldon, Byzantium, 2, 10.

14. Destruction of images (and limited extent): Brubaker and Haldon, Byzantium, 199–212; Robin Cormack, Writing in Gold: Byzantine Society and Its Icons (London: George Philip, 1985), 108–111, 142–143; Philipp Niewohner, ‘The Significance of the Cross Before, During, and After Iconoclasm: Early Christian Aniconism in Constantinople and Asia Minor’, Dumbarton Oaks Papers 74 (2021): 185–242. Evidence of persecution: Byzantine Defenders of Images: Eight Saints’ Lives in English Translation, ed. Alice-Mary Talbot (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Center, 1998); summary and discussion of the Life of St Stephen the Younger, written c. 807, in Cormack, Writing, 118–121.

15. Judith Herrin, Women in Purple: Rulers of Medieval Byzantium (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2001), 83–91; Brubaker and Haldon, Byzantium, 265–266.

16. Fall of Irene: Herrin, Women, 126–128. ‘Theme system’: Brubaker and Haldon, Byzantium, 744–755; see also Whittow, Making, 167–175 (167 for the belated military reform in relation to iconoclasm). Reconquest of Greece: Constantine Porphyrogenitus [909–959], De administrando imperio, Greek text ed. G. Moravcsik; English trans. R. J. H. Jenkins, rev. ed. (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Center, 1967), chaps. 49–50, pp. 228–231; Curta, Edinburgh History, 135–137.

17. Brubaker and Haldon, Byzantium, 6, 367–385.

18. Brubaker and Haldon, Byzantium, 398, 447–452 (‘Triumph of Orthodoxy’); Herrin, Women, 202–213 (Theodora); Cormack, Writing, 141 (coins).

19. Photios, ‘Sermon 17’: ‘On the inauguration of the image of the Virgin’, cited in translation in Cormack, Writing, 150, and see 146–156 for context and discussion.

20. Whittow, Making, 136, citing The Homilies of Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople, trans. Cyril Mango (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1958), 106–110.

21. Photios, ‘Sermon 17’, in Cormack, Writing, 149; Brubaker and Haldon, Byzantium, 271–275, 284–286, 774–788.

22. Anthony Kaldellis, Streams of Gold, Rivers of Blood: The Rise and Fall of Byzantium, 955 A.D. to the First Crusade (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017), xxvii.

23. Dmitri Obolensky, ‘The Principles and Methods of Byzantine Diplomacy’, in Actes du XIIe Congrès international d’etudes byzantines, 1961, vol. 2, ed. Georgije Ostrogorski (Belgrade: Naučno Delo, 1964), 52; Evangelos Chrysos, ‘Byzantine Diplomacy, A.D. 300–800: Means and Ends’, in Byzantine Diplomacy, ed. Jonathan Shepard and Simon Franklin (Aldershot: Variorum, 1992), 25–39 (see 28–29).

24. Chrysos, ‘Byzantine Diplomacy’; Kaldellis, Streams, 9–10, citing Constantine Porphyrogenitus, De Caerimoniis 2.15 and Liutprand of Cremona, Antapodosis 6.5 (both tenth century).

25. Bettany Hughes, Istanbul: A Tale of Three Cities (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2017), 265, 268–272; Michalis Kordoses, Πρεσβείες μεταξύ Fu–lin (Βυζάντιο;) και Κίνας (Ioannina: Dodone, 1995).

26. Judith Herrin, Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire (London: Allen Lane, 2007), 131–138, 215–216; Dionysios Stathakopoulos, A Short History of the Byzantine Empire (London: I. B. Tauris, 2014), 105–106.

27. The fullest account of these events, with references to the original sources, is Arnold Toynbee, Constantine Porphyrogenitus and His World (London: Oxford University Press, 1973), 582–591.

28. Ioannis Scylitzes Synopsis Historiarum, ed. J. Thurn (Berlin and New York: De Gruyter, 1973), 348–349 (late eleventh century). For modern discussions, see Paul Stephenson, Byzantium’s Balkan Frontier: A Political Study of the Northern Balkans, 900–1204 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 71–74; Kaldellis, Streams, 120–127.

29. Scylitzes, 364 (my translation); Anthony Kaldellis, The Christian Parthenon: Classicism and Pilgrimage in Byzantine Athens (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 81–91.

Chapter 10: ‘City of the World’s Desire’

1. The Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela, trans. Marcus Nathan Adler (London: Henry Frowde, 1907), 22–23; Philip Mansel, Constantinople: City of the World’s Desire, 1453–1924 (London: Penguin, 1997), 3.

2. Judith Herrin, Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire (London: Allen Lane, 2007), 242–251 (242 citing Ioannes Tzetzes, Epilogue to the Theogony); Paul Magdalino, ‘Hellenism and Nationalism in Byzantium’, in Paul Magdalino, Tradition and Transformation in Medieval Byzantium (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1991), chap. XIV, pp. 5–6, 21, citing Eustathios, Oration for the Emperor Manuel Komnenos with commentary, both discussed by Anthony Kaldellis, Hellenism in Byzantium: The Transformations of Greek Identity and the Reception of the Classical Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 294.

3. Michael Psellos, Chronographia, translated as Fourteen Byzantine Rulers by E. R. A. Sewter (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1966); Michael Jeffreys and Marc Lauxtermann, The Letters of Psellos: Cultural Networks and Historical Realities (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017). For a modern reassessment of the importance of Psellos, see Kaldellis, Hellenism, 191–226. Cultural and personal identity: Paul Magdalino, The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos, 1143–1180 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 394–395, 400–401, 409–410 (‘Renaissance’).

4. Roderick Beaton, The Medieval Greek Romance, 2nd ed. (London: Routledge, 1996), 52–88; Four Byzantine Novels, trans. with introductions and notes by Elizabeth Jeffreys (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2012). Satire: Timarion, trans. Barry Baldwin (Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press, 1984). Epic: Digenis Akritis: The Grottaferrata and Escorial Versions, ed. and trans. Elizabeth Jeffreys (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).

5. Ptochoprodromos, ed. Hans Eideneier (Heraklion: Crete University Press, 2012), 176 (my translation); see also Margaret Alexiou, ‘Ploys of Performance: Games and Play in the Ptochoprodromic Poems’, Dumbarton Oaks Papers 53 (1999): 91–109. On the language used here, see Geoffrey Horrocks, Greek: A History of the Language and Its Speakers, 2nd ed. (Medford, MA, and Oxford: Wiley Blackwell, 2014), 337–342.

6. Benjamin of Tudela, Itinerary, 20; Dionysios Stathakopoulos, A Short History of the Byzantine Empire (London: I. B. Tauris, 2014), 148–149.

7. The principal Greek source for these events is Michael Attaleiates, History 20–21, translated (with parallel Greek text) by Anthony Kaldellis and Dimitris Krallis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012), 261–325; Anthony Kaldellis, Streams of Gold, Rivers of Blood: The Rise and Fall of Byzantium, 955 A.D. to the First Crusade (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017), 241–251.

8. Anna Komnene, The Alexiad, trans. E. R. A. Sewter, rev. with notes and introduction by Peter Frankopan (London: Penguin, 2009).

9. Peter Frankopan, The First Crusade: The Call from the East (London: Vintage, 2013), 57–70 (70 quoted); Kaldellis, Streams, 272–279.

10. Frankopan, First Crusade, 97–100 (99 quoted, citing the contemporary chronicle by Bernold of Constance); Kaldellis, Streams, 285–287. Church schism: Michael Angold, Church and Society in Byzantium Under the Comneni, 1081–1261 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 22–27.

11. Anna Komnene, Alexiad 10.5, trans. Sewter and Frankopan, 275 (quoted), see also 10.9.

12. Frankopan, First Crusade, 116.

13. Anna Komnene, Alexiad 10.9–11, trans. Sewter and Frankopan, 284–296; Frankopan, First Crusade, 132–133, 136; Kaldellis, Streams, 292–295, 296, 298–299 (‘Byzantine imperial army’).

14. Anna Komnene, Alexiad 10.8, trans. Sewter and Frankopan, 282–283 (crossbow); Frankopan, First Crusade, 66, 86, 140 (siege warfare).

15. Anna Komnene, Alexiad 11.2, trans. Sewter and Frankopan, 302 (quoted), 304; Frankopan, First Crusade, 139–142.

16. Anna Komnene, Alexiad 11.4–6, trans. Sewter and Frankopan, 306–315; Kaldellis, Streams, 297–301.

17. Holy war: Ioannis Stouraitis, ‘“Just War” and “Holy War” in the Middle Ages: Rethinking Theory Through the Byzantine Case-Study’, Jahrbuch für Osterreichischen Byzantinistik 62 (2012): 229–250; Frankopan, First Crusade, 202–206 (conclusion on Alexios’s strategy). Quoted: Alexios I Komnenos, The Muses (1118), cited and translated in Magdalino, Empire, 28.

18. Magdalino, Empire, 41–42; Angeliki Papageorgiou, ‘The Political Ideology of John II Komnenos’, in John II Komnenos, Emperor of Byzantium: In the Shadow of Father and Son, ed. Alessandra Bucossi and Alex Rodriguez Suarez (Abingdon: Routledge, 2016), 37–52.

19. Jonathan Phillips, The Second Crusade: Extending the Frontiers of Christendom (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007), 171–175, 190–195; Elizabeth Jeffreys, ‘The Comnenian Background to the romans d’antiquite’, Byzantion 50 (1980): 112–131; Roderick Beaton, ‘Transplanting Culture: From Greek Novel to Medieval Romance’, in Reading in the Byzantine Empire and Beyond, ed. Teresa Shawcross and Ida Toth (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018), 499–513; Chretien de Troyes, Cliges, in Arthurian Romances, trans. William Kibler (London: Penguin, 1991), 123–205.

20. Timothy Gregory, A History of Byzantium, 2nd ed. (Medford, MA, and Oxford: Wiley Blackwell, 2010), 315, citing Nicetae Choniatae Historia, ed. van Dieten (Berlin: De Gruyter), 108–109 [hereafter: Choniates, History]. For a translation of this work, see O City of Byzantium: Annals of Niketas Choniates, trans. Harry J. Magoulias (Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press, 1984).

21. Michael Angold, The Fourth Crusade: Event and Context (London: Pearson Longman, 2003), 4 (competing modern assessments), 8–10, 42, 72, 99 (on Choniates); see also Alicia Simpson, Niketas Choniates: A Historiographical Study (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013).

22. For the role of the populace in Byzantine politics in general, see Anthony Kaldellis, The Byzantine Republic: People and Power in New Rome (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015), and specifically on these events: 112, 123–124, 129–130, 148–150, 161–162.

23. Michael Angold, The Byzantine Empire, 1025–1204: A Political History (London: Longman, 1984), 263–283. On separatism, see Jean-Claude Cheynet, Pouvoir et contestations à Byzance (963–1210) (Paris: Sorbonne, 1990), 110–156, 427–458.

24. See Angold, Fourth Crusade, 15; Jonathan Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople (London: Pimlico, 2005), 144–145 for citations from Geoffrey of Villehardouin and Robert Clari.

25. Phillips, Fourth Crusade, 168, 169, 315–316.

26. Angold, Fourth Crusade, 45–46 (Byzantine attitudes), 57, 75, 96, 98 (crusader intentions).

27. Angold, Fourth Crusade, 97–99; Phillips, Fourth Crusade, 221–241.

28. Choniates, History, 585 (my translation); trans. Magoulias, 322; Angold, Fourth Crusade, 100–101; Phillips, Fourth Crusade, 241–280.

Chapter 11: Hopeful Monsters

1. Jonathan Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople (London: Pimlico, 2005), xv; Michael Angold, The Fourth Crusade: Event and Context (London: Pearson Longman, 2003), 113–114.

2. Kenneth Setton, Athens in the Middle Ages (London: Variorum, 1975).

3. Averil Cameron, The Byzantines (Oxford: Blackwell, 2006), 192–193; Anthony Kaldellis, Hellenism in Byzantium: The Transformations of Greek Identity and the Reception of the Classical Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 308, 334–338; George Demacopoulos, Colonizing Christianity: Greek and Latin Religious Identity in the Era of the Fourth Crusade (New York: Fordham University Press, 2019), 5–9 and passim.

4. Adrian Hastings, The Construction of Nationhood: Ethnicity, Religion and Nationalism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Joep Leerssen, National Thought in Europe: A Cultural History (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2006), 25–51; Caspar Hirschi, The Origins of Nationalism: An Alternative History from Ancient Rome to Early Modern Germany (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 78–103 and passim.

5. Anthony Bryer, The Empire of Trebizond and the Pontos (London: Variorum, 1980).

6. Donald Nicol, The Last Centuries of Byzantium 1261–1453, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 10, 12–13; on Epiros, see more fully Donald Nicol, The Despotate of Epiros, 2 vols. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1957, 1984).

7. Michael Angold, A Byzantine Government in Exile: Government and Society Under the Laskarids of Nicaea 1204–1261 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975); Dimiter Angelov, The Byzantine Hellene: The Life of Emperor Theodore Laskaris and Byzantium in the Thirteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019).

8. Nicol, Last Centuries, 31–33.

9. Nicol, Last Centuries, 41–42; Angold, Fourth Crusade, 148, 158, 160.

10. Nicol, Last Centuries, 33–37.

11. Nicol, Last Centuries, 41–71 (see 68–70 on ‘Sicilian Vespers’).

12. Nicol, Last Centuries, 72–89, 94–96 (‘reign of terror’, 95).

13. Angold, Fourth Crusade, 212; Kaldellis, Hellenism, 357–360.

14. Nicol, Last Centuries, 141–147, 170–172; Halil Inalcik, The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age 1300–1600 (London: Phoenix, 2000), 6–7; Caroline Finkel, Osman’s Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923 (London: John Murray, 2005), 13–15.

15. George Akropolites, The History, Introduction, translation, and commentary by Ruth Macrides (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007); on Pachymeres and Gregoras (not translated into English), see Leonora Neville, Guide to Byzantine Historical Writing (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018), 237–248. On the fourteenth-century translation of Aquinas by Demetrios Kydones, see Edmund Fryde, Early Palaeologan Renaissance, 1261–c.1360 (Leiden and Boston, MA: Brill, 2000), 381–386.

16. Paul Underwood, ed., The Kariye Djami, vol. 4. Studies in the Art of the Kariye Djami and Its Intellectual Background (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975); Angold, Fourth Crusade, 222–223; Geoffrey Horrocks, Greek: A History of the Language and Its Speakers, 2nd ed. (Medford, MA, and Oxford: Wiley Blackwell, 2014), 213–214, 226–227, 268–271.

17. On versions and date of the (lost) original version, see Gill Page, Being Byzantine: Greek Identity Before the Ottomans (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 178–180, 303–304; Teresa Shawcross, The Chronicle of Morea: Historiography in Crusader Greece (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 42–52. Language: Horrocks, Greek, 349–357. Oral tradition: Michael Jeffreys, ‘Formulas in the Chronicle of the Morea’, Dumbarton Oaks Papers 27 (1975): 165–95, reprinted in Elizabeth and Michael Jeffreys, Popular Literature in Late Byzantium (London: Variorum, 1983); Shawcross, Chronicle, 118–119, 182–183. For the Chronicle as ‘colonial discourse’, see Demacopoulos, Colonizing Christianity, 103–121.

18. The Chronicle of Morea, ed. John Schmitt (London: Methuen, 1904) [parallel Greek text and English translation of versions H and P], H 724–726 (my translation); cited and discussed in Shawcross, Chronicle, 158.

19. Chronicle, ed. Schmitt, H 3991–3993 (my translation); cited and discussed by Shawcross, 208–209; Demacopoulos, Colonizing Christianity, 120.

20. Shawcross, Chronicle, 24–26, 238–259 (context for composition), 212–213 (disregard for the common people).

21. On the significance and probable date of the vernacular Greek translation of the Old French Roman de Troie, see Shawcross, Chronicle, 95–98; Elizabeth Jeffreys, ‘Byzantine Romances: Eastern or Western?’, in Renaissance Encounters: Greek East and Latin West, ed. Marina Brownlee and Dimitri Gondicas (Leiden and Boston, MA: Brill, 2013), 221–237 (see 228–237).

22. The standard edition, with English translation, remains Leontios Machairas, Recital Concerning the Sweet Land of Cyprus Entitled ‘Chronicle’, ed. and trans. R. M. Dawkins (Oxford: Clarendon, 1932). References to this edition in the following notes take the form of book number, followed by paragraph number. On language, see Horrocks, Greek, 362–366; Daniele Baglioni, ‘Language and Identity in Late Medieval Cyprus’, in Identity / Identities in Late Medieval Cyprus, ed. Tassos Papacostas and Guillaume Saint-Guillain (Nicosia: Cyprus Research Centre, 2014), 27–36.

23. Machairas, Chronicle, ed. Dawkins, 5.631, 5.674, 5.679 (on himself), 5.695–697, 5.700 (peasants’ revolt and return of King Janus). On Machairas and his loyalties, see further Shawcross, Chronicle, 224–229, 234; Angel Nicolaou-Konnari, ‘Alterity and Identity in Lusignan Cyprus from ca. 1350 to ca. 1450: The Testimonies of Philippe de Mezières and Leontios Makhairas’, in Papacostas and Saint-Guillain, Identity, 37–66 (see esp. 58–59, 61–65).

24. Shawcross, Chronicle, 228–229.

25. On Epiros and the Chronicle of the Tocco Family, see Shawcross, Chronicle, 229–232; see below for the Despotate of the Morea in the fifteenth century and Chapter 12 for Venetian Crete in the sixteenth and seventeenth.

26. Nicol, Last Centuries, 205–208, 215. On the coronation and the fake jewels, see also C. P. Cavafy, ‘Of Coloured Glass’, in C. P. Cavafy, The Collected Poems: Includes Parallel Greek Text, ed. Anthony Hirst, trans. Evangelos Sachperoglou (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 152–153.

27. Nicol, Last Centuries, 241–247; Donald Nicol, The Reluctant Emperor: A Biography of John Cantacuzene, Byzantine Emperor and Monk, c. 1295–1383 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).

28. Dirk Krausmüller, ‘The Rise of Hesychasm’, in The Cambridge History of Christianity, Vol. 5: Eastern Christianity, ed. Michael Angold (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 101–126.

29. Nicol, Last Centuries, 270–273 (mission of John V to Rome); Jonathan Harris, ‘Being a Byzantine After Byzantium: Hellenic Identity in Renaissance Italy’, Kampos: Cambridge Papers in Modern Greek 8 (2000): 25–44 (see 37 on transition from crusading to proto-nationalism).

30. Nicol, Last Centuries, 308–312 (309 quoted), 318; Donald Nicol, ‘A Byzantine Emperor in England. Manuel II’s Visit to London in 1400–1401’, University of Birmingham Historical Journal 12 (1971): 204–225.

31. Nevra Necipoğlu, Byzantium Between the Ottomans and the Latins: Politics and Society in the Late Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 149–183.

32. Nicol, Last Centuries, 230–231, 340–347; Necipoğlu, Byzantium, 235–284.

33. Respectively, George Gemistos Plethon, ‘Memorandum to the Emperor Manuel’, in Παλαιολογικά και Πελοποννησιακά [Of the Palaiologans and the Peloponnese], vol. 3, ed. Spyridon Lambros (Athens: Gregoriades, 1926), 249, 247 (my translation). The latter passage is cited and discussed in Niketas Siniossoglou, Radical Platonism in Byzantium: Illumination and Utopia in Gemistos Plethon (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 352.

34. Kaldellis, Hellenism, 371–379; Yannis Stouraitis, ‘Reinventing Roman Ethnicity in High and Late Medieval Byzantium’, Medieval Worlds 5 (2017): 85–88; see also Paul Magdalino, ‘Hellenism and Nationalism in Byzantium’, in Paul Magdalino, Tradition and Transformation in Medieval Byzantium (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1991), chap. XIV (see 12–18); Roderick Beaton, ‘Antique Nation? “Hellenes” on the Eve of Greek Independence and in Twelfth-Century Byzantium’, Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies 31, no. 1 (2007): 79–98 (see 87–95); and, more controversially, Anthony Kaldellis, A New Herodotos: Laonikos Chalkokondyles on the Ottoman Empire, the Fall of Byzantium, and the Emergence of the West (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Center, 2014), 222–228. For a partial precedent in the thirteenth century, see Angelov, The Byzantine Hellene.

35. Siniossoglou, Radical Platonism, 337–343; Teresa Shawcross, ‘A New Lykourgos for a New Sparta: George Gemistos Plethon and the Despotate of the Morea’, in Viewing the Morea: Land and People in the Late Medieval Peloponnese, ed. Sharon Gerstel (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013). For summaries of Plethon’s two memoranda on the Morea, see C. M. Woodhouse, Georgios Gemistos Plethon. The Last of the Hellenes (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986), 93–98, 102–109.

36. Nicol, Last Centuries, 353–359 (357 quoted); on the life and thought of Plethon, see most fully, in English, Woodhouse, Plethon, and Siniossoglou, Radical Platonism.

37. Nicol, Last Centuries, 361–368.

38. Nicol, Last Centuries, 370–371, 377–379; Michael Kordoses, ‘The Question of Constantine Palaiologos’ Coronation’, in The Making of Byzantine History: Studies Dedicated to Donald M. Nicol, ed. Roderick Beaton and Charlotte Roueche (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1993), 137–141; Doukas, ed. Vasile Grecu, Istoria turco-bizantinä (1341–1462), chap. 37, paragraph 10 (quoted, my translation).

39. Nicol, Last Centuries, 380, citing Georgios Sphrantzes, Chronicon Minus and noting discrepancies in the primary sources.

40. Donald Nicol, The Immortal Emperor: The Life and Legend of Constantine Palaiologos, Last Emperor of the Romans (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 74–108.

41. Nicol, Last Centuries, 389–392; Philip Mansel, Constantinople: City of the World’s Desire, 1453–1924 (London: Penguin, 1997), 1 (quoted), citing Nicolò Barbaro, Diary of the Siege of Constantinople, trans. J. R. Jones (New York: Exposition, 1969). For the fullest account of these events, see Steven Runciman, The Fall of Constantinople 1453 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1965).

Chapter 12: Between Two Worlds

1. Donald Nicol, The Last Centuries of Byzantium 1261–1453, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 391, 399–401.

2. See, most fully, Deno Geanakoplos, Greek Scholars in Venice: Studies in the Dissemination of Greek Learning from Byzantium to Western Europe (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1962); N. G. Wilson, From Byzantium to Italy: Greek Studies in the Italian Renaissance, 2nd ed. (London: Bloomsbury, 2017).

3. Wilson, From Byzantium, 47, 169, 178 (Byzantine education system), 28, 33, 36, 176 (‘civic humanism’).

4. Strabo and Columbus: Wilson, From Byzantium, 64–65. Byzantine prophecies: Nicol, Last Centuries, 411–412; Paul Magdalino, ‘The History of the Future and Its Uses: Prophecy, Policy and Propaganda’, in The Making of Byzantine History: Studies Dedicated to Donald M. Nicol, ed. Roderick Beaton and Charlotte Roueche (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1993), 1–34 (see 27–28).

5. Nicol, Last Centuries, 392–393; Petros Pizanias, The Making of the Modern Greeks, 1400–1820 (Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2020), 23–24, 29; Halil Inalcik, ‘The Policy of Mehmed II Toward the Greek Population of Istanbul and the Byzantine Buildings of the City’, Dumbarton Oaks Papers 23–24 (1969–1970): 229–249 (see 247 for the 1477 Ottoman census of households).

6. Inalcik, ‘Policy’, 233 (Mehmed’s title); Caroline Finkel, Osman’s Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923 (London: John Murray, 2005), 80, citing [Michael] Kritovoulos, History of Mehmed the Conqueror, trans. Charles Riggs (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1954), 3, a work completed in 1467.

7. Halil Inalcik, The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age 1300–1600 (London: Phoenix, 2000), 78.

8. Inalcik, ‘Policy’, 240; Pizanias, The Making, 18.

9. Molly Greene, The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, 1453 to 1768: The Ottoman Empire (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2015), 8–9, 24, 55.

10. N. M. Vaporis, Witnesses for Christ: Orthodox Christian Neomartyrs of the Ottoman Period, 1437–1860 (Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 2000).

11. Inalcik, Ottoman Empire, 33–40; 41; Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 108–138.

12. Greene, Edinburgh History, 91–93.

13. Noel Malcolm, Agents of Empire: Knights, Corsairs, Jesuits and Spies in the Sixteenth-Century Mediterranean World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019), 160–167; Inalcik, Ottoman Empire, 41–42.

14. Chryssa Maltezou, ‘The Historical and Social Context’, in Literature and Society in Renaissance Crete, ed. David Holton (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 17–47 (see 19–25); Theocharis Detorakis, History of Crete, trans. J. C. Davis (Iraklion, Crete: privately published, 1994), 146–175; Sally McKee, Uncommon Dominion: Venetian Crete and the Myth of Ethnic Purity (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000), 168–171 and passim.

15. Geoffrey Horrocks, Greek: A History of the Language and its Speakers, 2nd ed. (Medford, MA, and Oxford: Wiley Blackwell, 2014), 392–398.

16. Maria Georgopoulou, Venice’s Mediterranean Colonies: Architecture and Urbanism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 22 (fortifications); Maltezou, ‘Historical Context’, 29–30; Nikolaos Panagiotakes, El Greco—The Cretan Years, trans. John Davis (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2009), 7 (change in Venetian policy).

17. Panagiotakes, El Greco, 9 (Jesuits); Geanakoplos, Greek Scholars in Venice, 60–61 (Greeks in Venice); Panagiotakes, El Greco, 1–12 (education), 4 (literacy).

18. Panagiotakes, El Greco, 29–33 (‘eyewatering prices’), 79–82 (library).

19. David Holton, ed., Literature and Society in Renaissance Crete (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991): see, respectively, the chapters by Rosemary Bancroft-Marcus, ‘The Pastoral Mode’, 79–102; Alfred Vincent, ‘Comedy’, 103–128; Walter Puchner, ‘Tragedy’, 129–158; for English translation of four plays attributed to Chortatsis, see Georgios Chortatsis, Plays of the Veneto-Cretan Renaissance, vol. 1 [bilingual edition], trans. Rosemary Bancroft-Marcus (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013).

20. Katzarapos, in Georgios Chortatsis, Plays, 320–445 (this work is also known as Katzourbos); Markos Antonios Foskolos, Fortounatos [1655, in Greek], ed. Alfred Vincent (Heraklion, Crete: Society for Cretan Historical Studies, 1980). No ancient Greek: Linos Politis, ‘Introduction’ [in Greek], in Georgios Chortatsis, Κατζούρμπος: κωμωδία [Katzourbos: A Comedy] (Heraklion, Crete: Society for Cretan Historical Studies, 1964), xxxvi, lvi.

21. David Holton, ‘Romance’, in Holton, Literature, 205–237; Roderick Beaton, ‘Erotokritos and the History of the Novel’, Kampos: Cambridge Studies in Modern Greek 12 (2004): 1–25. For a verse translation, see Vitzentzos Kornaros, Erotocritos, trans. Theodore Stephanides (Athens: Papazissis, 1984); for a prose alternative, Vitsentzos Kornaros, Erotokritos, trans. Gavin Betts, Stathis Gauntlett, and Thanasis Spilias (Melbourne: Australian Association for Byzantine Studies, 2004).

22. Vitsentsos Kornaros, Ερωτόκριτος, κριτική έκδοση [Erotokritos: Critical Edition], ed. Stylianos Alexiou (Athens: Ermis, 1980), Part 1, lines 19–20, 25–26 (my translation).

23. Erotokritos, ed. Alexiou, Part 2, lines 319–320, 999–1000 (my translation). On the significance of this episode, see Holton, ‘Romance’, in Holton, Literature, 224–232.

24. Zuanne Papadopoli, Memories of Seventeenth-Century Crete: L’Occio (Time of Leisure), [Italian text] edited with English translation by Alfred Vincent (Venice: Hellenic Institute of Byzantine and Post-Byzantine Studies, 2007), 44. For the author’s life and background, see ‘Introduction’, 18, 19, 24–28, 30.

25. Papadopoli, L’Occio, trans. Vincent, 130–132, 138, 206–208.

26. Papadopoli, L’Occio, trans. Vincent, 68–72, 130.

27. Papadopoli, L’Occio, trans. Vincent, 210.

28. Maltezou, ‘Historical Context’, 42, citing in translation the report of Provveditore Generale Zuanne Mocenigo (1589) (quoted); Vincent in Papadopoli, L’Occio (commentary), 327, citing the same document.

29. David Holton, ‘The Cretan Renaissance’, in Holton, Literature, 1–16 (see 4–5).

30. Panagiotakes, El Greco, 11; William Prescott, History of the Conquest of Peru, 2 vols. (Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott, 1867), 1.263, 1.277–278, 2.228–229 (Pedro de Candia); Samuel Purchas, Hakluytus Posthumus, or Purchas His Pilgrims (Glasgow: Maclehose, 1906), 14.415–421 (first published 1625, reporting a meeting that took place in 1596); Peter Chimbos, ‘The Greeks in Canada: An Historical and Sociological Perspective’, in The Greek Diaspora in the Twentieth Century, ed. Richard Clogg (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1999), 87–102 (see 100) (Juan de Fuca).

31. D. Eichholz, ‘A Greek Traveller in Tudor England’, Greece and Rome 16, no. 47 (1947): 76–84; George Seferis, ‘Ένας Έλληνας στην Αγγλία του 1545’ [‘A Greek in England in 1545’] in Δοκιμές [Essays], vol. 2 (Athens: Ikaros, 1984), 101–111 (110 quoted, my translation). For the full text of Nikandros’s three volumes of travels, see Nicandre de Corcyre, Voyages, ed. J.-A. de Foucault (Paris: Belles Lettres, 1962).

32. Greene, Edinburgh History, 36, 94–103 (101 quoted), 107.

33. David Holton, ‘The Cretan Renaissance’, 4–5 (Venice); Greene, Edinburgh History, 129–131 (Smyrna).

34. Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 225–226.

35. Molly Greene, A Shared World: Christians and Muslims in the Early Modern Mediterranean (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000), 39–44; Detorakis, History, 237 (contemporary testimony), 185 (total population).

36. Detorakis, History, 238–242; Basil Gounaris, ‘See How the Gods Favour Sacrilege’: English Views and Politics on Candia Under Siege (Athens: National Hellenic Research Foundation, 2012), 95–99 and passim.

37. Detorakis, History, 240–241; Marinos Tzane Bounialis, Ο Κρητικός πόλεμος (1645–1669) [The Cretan War], ed. Stylianos Alexiou (Athens: Stigmi, 1995), 433–436.

38. Detorakis, History, 242; Bounialis, Cretan War, 424, 485–488.

Chapter 13: ‘Greek Revival’

1. Andrew Wheatcroft, The Enemy at the Gate: Habsburgs, Ottomans and the Battle for Europe (London: Bodley Head, 2008), 135–188, 228–229.

2. Molly Greene, The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, 1453 to 1768: The Ottoman Empire (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2015), 131–132, 205–206; Christine Philliou, Biography of an Empire: Governing Ottomans in an Age of Revolution (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011), 8–10; Paschalis Kitromilides, Enlightenment and Revolution: The Making of Modern Greece (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013), 29–30.

3. Caroline Finkel, Osman’s Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923 (London: John Murray, 2005), 302–303, 314, 319; Philip Mansel, Constantinople: City of the World’s Desire, 1453–1924 (London: Penguin, 1997), 150–151.

4. Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 291–292, 336–338.

5. Greene, Edinburgh History, 131–132, 205–206; Philliou, Biography, 8–10; Kitromilides, Enlightenment, 29–30.

6. Philliou, Biography, 35–6; Kitromilides, Enlightenment, 31, 35.

7. John Penrose Barron, From Samos to Soho: The Unorthodox Life of Joseph Georgirenes, a Greek Archbishop (Oxford: Peter Lang, 2017), 154–155 (coffee houses), 158–182 (Greek church); Jonathan Harris, ‘Silent Minority: The Greek Community of Eighteenth-Century London’, in Greek Diaspora and Migration since 1700: Society, Politics and Culture, ed. Dimitris Tziovas (London: Routledge, 2009), 31–44; Richard Clogg, ‘The Greek Diaspora: The Historical Context’, in The Greek Diaspora in the Twentieth Century, ed. Richard Clogg (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1999), 1–23 (see 1–2, 9–10 for Argentina, Bengal).

8. Thomas Gallant, The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, 1768 to 1913 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2015), 14–15; Lucien Frary, Russia and the Making of Modern Greek Identity 1821–1844 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), 20–27.

9. Vassilis Kardasis, ‘Greek Diaspora in Southern Russia in the Eighteenth Through Nineteenth Centuries’, in Homelands and Diasporas: Greeks, Jews and Their Migrations, ed. Minna Rozen (London: Bloomsbury, 2020), 161–167 (see 164); Gelina Harlaftis, Creating Global Shipping: Aristotle Onassis, the Vagliano Brothers, and the Business of Shipping, c. 1820–1970 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019), 35 (‘deep-seagoing vessels’), 48–54 (Russian trade before 1830).

10. Olga Katsiardi-Hering, ‘Central and Peripheral Communities in the Greek Diaspora’, in Rozen, Homelands, 169–180 (see 174–175); Traian Stoianovich, ‘The Conquering Balkan Orthodox Merchant’, Journal of Economic History 20 (1960): 234–313.

11. Paschalis Kitromilides, ‘Diaspora, Identity, and Nation-Building’, in Rozen, Homelands, 323–331 (see 324–327).

12. Philliou, Biography, 15–17, 38–40; Greene, Edinburgh History, 174–175.

13. See, for example, Joep Leerssen, National Thought in Europe: A Cultural History (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2006), 82–89.

14. Encyclopedie, ou Dictionnaire raisonne des sciences, des arts et des metiers (Paris, 1751–1772), 5.635 (‘enchaînement de connoissances’), 5.642 (‘changer la façon commune de penser’) (Diderot), 17.741 (Jaucourt) (my translation). Available online at http://enccre.academie -sciences.fr/encyclopedie/.

15. J. J. Winckelmann, History of the Art of Antiquity, trans. H. F. Mallgrave (Los Angeles: Getty, 2006; first published in German, 1764); citation from David Constantine, In the Footsteps of the Gods: Travellers to Greece and the Quest for the Hellenic Ideal (London: I. B. Tauris, 2011), 100–101. The argument briefly summarised here is made much more fully in Nasia Giakovaki, Ευρώπη μέσω Ελλάδας: μια καμπή στην ευρωπαϊκή αυτοσυνείδηση, 17ος–18ος αιώνας [Europe via Greece: A Turning Point in European Consciousness, 17th–18th Centuries] (Athens: Estia, 2006).

16. Matteo Zaccarini, ‘The Athens of the North? Scotland and the National Struggle for the Parthenon, Its Marbles, and Its Identity’, Aevum 92, no. 1 (2018): 179–195; Iain Gordon Brown, ‘Edinburgh as Athens: New Evidence to Support a Topographical and Intellectual Idea Current in the Early Nineteenth Century’, Book of the Old Edinburgh Club, New Series 15 (2019): 1–12. See more generally, J. Mordaunt Crook, The Greek Revival: Neo-Classical Attitudes in British Architecture, 1760–1870 (London: John Murray, 1972).

17. On the history of the ‘marbles’ and controversy, see William St. Clair, Lord Elgin and the Marbles, 3rd ed., rev. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998). On their reception in the early nineteenth century, see the essays reprinted in William Hazlitt, On the Elgin Marbles (London: Hesperus, 2008); Frederic Will, ‘Two Critics of the Elgin Marbles: William Hazlitt and Quatremère de Quincy’, Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 14, no. 4 (1956): 362–374.

18. Lord Byron, Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage, Canto 2, stanzas 84–87 and ‘Byron’s Notes to Cantos I–II’, section II (Athens, January 23, 1811); Roderick Beaton, Byron’s War: Romantic Rebellion, Greek Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 23–29; Alexander Grammatikos, British Romantic Literature and the Emerging Modern Greek Nation (Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018), 67–104.

19. Greene, Edinburgh History, 209; Konstantinos Staikos and Triantaphyllos Sklavenitis, The Publishing Centres of the Greeks: From the Renaissance to the Neohellenic Enlightenment, trans. David Hardy (Athens: National Book Centre of Greece, 2001); see also Philippos Iliou, Ιστορίες του ελληνικού βιβλίου [Histories of the Greek Book] (Heraklion, Crete: Crete University Press, 2005).

20. Kitromilides, Enlightenment, 63–88.

21. Kitromilides, Enlightenment, 76–81.

22. D. Katartzis, Τα Ευρισκόμενα [Found Remains], ed. K. Th. Dimaras (Athens: privately printed, 1970), 24 (my translation), on which see also Stratos Myrogiannis, The Emergence of a Greek Identity (1700–1821) (Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars, 2012), 102–103, and Kitromilides, Enlightenment, 142–154; Daniel Philippidis and Grigorios Konstantas, Γεωγραφία νεωτερική: Περί της Ελλάδος [Modern Geography: On Greece], ed. with introduction by Aikaterini Koumarianou (Athens: Ermis, 1970), 37, 38.

23. Alexis Politis, ‘From Christian Roman Emperors to the Glorious Greek Ancestors’, in Byzantium and the Modern Greek Identity, ed. David Ricks and Paul Magdalino (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998), 1–14 (8 cited); Roderick Beaton, ‘Antique Nation? “Hellenes” on the Eve of Greek Independence and in Twelfth-Century Byzantium’, Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies 31, no. 1 (2007): 79–98 (see 80–87).

24. Paschalis Kitromilides, Η Γαλλική Επανάσταση και η νοτιοανατολική Ευρώπη [The French Revolution and Southeastern Europe], 2nd ed. (Athens: Poreia, 2000), 41–61.

25. Roderick Beaton, Greece: Biography of a Modern Nation (London: Allen Lane, 2019), 43–46, 53–68.

26. ‘Πατριαρχική διδασκαλία’ [‘Patriarchal Instruction’], 1797, in Adamantios Korais, Άπαντα τα πρωτότυπα έργα, τόμ. Α΄ [Complete Original Works, Vol. 1], ed. G. Valetas (Athens: Dorikos, 1964), 44–45 (my translation); for English translation and commentary, see Richard Clogg, ed. and trans., The Movement for Greek Independence, 1770–1821: A Collection of Documents (London: Macmillan, 1976; reprint, Hunstanton, UK: Witley Press, 2021), 56–64. See also Kitromilides, Enlightenment, 305–307.

27. Cited in Gavin Murray-Miller, Revolutionary Europe: Politics, Community and Culture in Transnational Context, 1775–1922 (London: Bloomsbury, 2020), 121.

28. Ioannis Philemon, Δοκίμιον ιστορικόν περί της Ελληνικής Επαναστάσεως [Historical Essay Concerning the Greek Revolution], 4 vols. (Athens: Karyophyllis, 1859–1861), 1.47–68. More lurid versions of this plan were evidently in circulation for some time afterwards; see Thomas Gordon, History of the Greek Revolution, 2 vols. (Edinburgh: Blackwood, 1832), 1.180–181; George Finlay, History of the Greek Revolution, 2 vols. (Edinburgh: Blackwood, 1861), 1.122.

29. Ypsilantis’s text, dated 24 February, which is equivalent to 8 March in the Western calendar, is available online at https://el.wikisource.org /wiki/Μάχου_υπέρ_πίστεως_και_πατρίδος (in Greek, my translation). Mavromichalis: cited in English in Gordon, History, 1.183.

30. Marios Hatzopoulos, ‘From Resurrection to Insurrection: “Sacred” Myths, Motifs, and Symbols in the Greek War of Independence’, in The Making of Modern Greece: Nationalism, Romanticism, and the Uses of the Past (1797–1896), ed. Roderick Beaton and David Ricks (Farnham: Ashgate, 2009), 81–93.

31. Finlay, History, 1.189.

32. Beaton, Greece, 85–90.

33. William St. Clair, That Greece Might Still Be Free: The Philhellenes in the War of Independence (London: Open Book, 2008; first published 1972); Roderick Beaton, ‘European Philhellenes’, in The Greek Revolution: A Critical Dictionary, ed. Paschalis Kitromilides and Constantinos Tsoukalas (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2021), 593–613. For philhellenism as a Europe-wide movement, see Denys Barau, La Cause des Grecs, une histoire du mouvement philhellène (1821–1829) (Paris: Honore Champion, 2009).

34. Douglas Dakin, The Greek Struggle for Independence, 1821–1833 (London: Batsford, 1973), 148–150 (Canning); Gary Bass, Freedom’s Battle: The Origins of Humanitarian Intervention (New York: Vintage, 2009), 91–97 (95 cited); George Kaloudis, Modern Greece and the Diaspora Greeks in the United States (Lanham, MD: Lexington, 2018), 23–25.

35. J. M. Wagstaff, Greece: Ethnicity and Sovereignty, 1820–1994. Atlas and Documents (Archive Editions [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press], 2002), 141–145.

Chapter 14: European State, Global Nation

1. The standard treatment of this period remains John Petropulos, Politics and Statecraft in the Kingdom of Greece, 1833–1843 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1968).

2. Eleni Bastea, The Creation of Modern Athens: Planning the Myth (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 43–104; Yannis Hamilakis, The Nation and Its Ruins: Antiquity, Archaeology, and National Imagination in Greece (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 59–64, 94–98.

3. Kostas Kostis, History’s Spoiled Children: The Formation of the Modern Greek State, trans. Jacob Moe (London: Hurst 2018; Greek original published in 2013), 108 (currency), 119 (universal male suffrage).

4. Elli Skopetea, Το «πρότυπο βασίλειο» και η Μεγάλη Ιδέα: όψεις του εθνικού προβλήματος στην Ελλάδα [The ‘Model Kingdom’ and the Grand Idea: Aspects of the National Problem in Greece] (Athens: Polytypo, 1988), 162.

5. Michael Llewellyn Smith, Olympics in Athens: 1896–2004 (London: Profile, 2004), 65–81, 94–97, 154–191; Alexander Kitroeff, Wrestling with the Ancients: Modern Greek Identity and the Olympics (New York: Greekworks.com, 2004), 25–26, 27–35, 48–50; Bastea, Creation, 204–212.

6. Richard Clogg, A Concise History of Greece, 4th ed., rev. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2021), 313 (table 1: population statistics); Richard Clogg, ‘The Greek Diaspora: The Historical Context’, in The Greek Diaspora in the Twentieth Century, ed. Richard Clogg (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1999), 1–23. The fullest study remains I. K. Hasiotis, Επισκόπηση της ιστορίας της νεοελληνικής διασποράς [Survey of the History of the Modern Greek Diaspora] (Thessaloniki: Vanias, 1993).

7. For a judicious sampling of original sources from the period, with commentary, see Alexis Politis, Ρομαντικά χρόνια: ιδεολογίες και νοοτροπίες στην Ελλάδα του 1830–1880 [Romantic Years: Ideologies and Mentalities in Greece, 1830–1880] (Athens: Mnimon, 1993), 61–67. For an outsider’s perception of attitudes in the 1870s, see Charles Tuckerman, The Greeks of Today, 2nd ed. (New York: Putnam, 1878; first ed., 1872), 123–124.

8. Gelina Harlaftis, Creating Global Shipping: Aristotle Onassis, the Vagliano Brothers, and the Business of Shipping, c. 1820–1970 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019), 4, 41, 158, 231, 262.

9. Harlaftis, Creating, 68, 92, 264–265 and passim.

10. Gelina Harlaftis, A History of Greek-Owned Shipping: The Making of an International Tramp Fleet, 1830 to the Present Day (Abingdon: Routledge, 2015; first ed., 1996), 41–44, 51–55; Colin Fenn and James Slattery-Kavanagh, West Norwood Cemetery’s Greek Necropolis: An Illustrated Guide (London: Friends of West Norwood Cemetery, 2011).

11. Konstantinos Svolopoulos, Κωνσταντινούπολη 1856–1908: η ακμή του Ελληνισμού [Constantinople 1856–1908: The Highpoint of Hellenism] (Athens: Ekdotiki Athinon, 1994), 37–38 (population); Dimitri Gondicas and Charles Issawi, eds., Ottoman Greeks in the Age of Nationalism (Princeton, NJ: Darwin Press, 1999).

12. Alexander Kitroeff, The Greeks and the Making of Modern Egypt (Cairo and New York: The American University in Cairo Press, 2019), 23–50, 67, 71–73.

13. E. M. Forster, ‘The Complete Poems of C. P. Cavafy’, in The Mind and Art of C. P. Cavafy: Essays on His Life and Work (Athens: Denise Harvey, 1983), 40–45 (44–45 quoted, essay first published 1951).

14. Gerasimos Augustinos, Consciousness and History: Nationalist Critics of Greek Society, 1897–1914 (New York: Columbia University Press / East European Quarterly, 1977), 26, quoting (in translation) Neoklis Kazazis in Ellinismos 1 (1899): 7–8 (emphasis added).

15. Spyros Melas, Η επανάσταση του 1909 [The Revolution of 1909] (Athens: Biris, 1957), 13, cited in translation in Michael Llewellyn-Smith, Venizelos: The Making of a Greek Statesman, 1864–1914 (London: Hurst, 2021), 176.

16. Roderick Beaton, Greece: Biography of a Modern Nation (London: Allen Lane, 2019), 187–232; for a twenty-first-century reassessment, see Llewellyn-Smith, Venizelos.

17. Richard Hall, The Balkan Wars, 1912–1913: Prelude to the First World War (London: Routledge, 2002); Douglas Dakin, The Unification of Greece 1770–1923 (London: Benn, 1972), 201–202.

18. Giorgos Mavrogordatos, 1915: ο Εθνικός Διχασμός [1915: The National Schism] (Athens: Patakis, 2015), 93, 217, cited in translation in Beaton, Greece, 211 (emphases added).

19. On these events, from 1914 to 1923, see most fully in English: Michael Llewellyn Smith, Ionian Vision: Greece in Asia Minor 1919–1922 (London: Hurst, 1998; first published 1973). See also Konstantinos Travlos, ed., Salvation and Catastrophe: The Greek–Turkish War, 1919–1922 (London and New York: Lexington, 2020).

20. Dimitri Pentzopoulos, The Balkan Exchange of Minorities and Its Impact upon Greece (Paris and The Hague: Mouton, 1962; reprinted with a new introduction by Michael Llewellyn Smith, London: Hurst, 2002), 257–263; Renee Hirschon, ed., Crossing the Aegean: An Appraisal of the 1923 Compulsory Population Exchange Between Greece and Turkey (Oxford: Berghahn, 2003). On the impact of the exchange, see Bruce Clark, Twice a Stranger: Greece, Turkey and the Minorities They Expelled (London: Granta, 2006). ‘Outstanding success’: Stathis Kalyvas, Modern Greece: What Everyone Needs to Know (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), 76, 79.

21. George Seferis, ‘In the Manner of G. S.’, in Ποιήματα [Poems] (Athens: Ikaros, 2014), 99–101; George Seferis, Δοκιμές [Essays], vol. 1 (Athens: Ikaros, 1984), 102 (both my translation).

22. Nikos Kazantzakis, Βίος και πολιτεία του Αλέξη Ζορμπά [Life and Times of Alexis Zorbas] (Athens: Kazantzakis Editions, 1969), 178–179 (my translation); see also Nikos Kazantzakis, Zorba the Greek, trans. Peter Bien (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2014).

23. George Mavrogordatos, Stillborn Republic: Social Coalitions and Party Strategies in Greece, 1922–1936 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983); John Koliopoulos, Greece and the British Connection 1935–1941 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977); Marina Petrakis, The Metaxas Myth: Dictatorship and Propaganda in Greece (London: I. B. Tauris, 2006).

24. Kitroeff, The Greeks, 1, 4, 8, 46–47.

25. Charles Moskos, ‘The Greeks in the United States’, in Clogg, Greek Diaspora, 103–119 (see 104); George Kaloudis, Modern Greece and the Diaspora Greeks in the United States (Lanham, MD: Lexington, 2018), 56, 76, 160–161.

26. Harlaftis, Creating, 39.

27. Mark Mazower, Inside Hitler’s Greece: The Experience of Occupation, 1941–44 (New Haven, CT, and London: Yale University Press, 1993), 41 and passim. See also Violetta Hionidou, Famine and Death in Occupied Greece (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006).

28. This paragraph draws extensively on Stathis Kalyvas, The Logic of Violence in Civil War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006) (see especially 31) and by the same author, ‘Red Terror: Leftist Violence During the Occupation’, in After the War Was Over: Reconstructing the Family, Nation, and State in Greece, 1943–1960, ed. Mark Mazower (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000), 142–183. See also Beaton, Greece, 278–285.

29. John Iatrides, Revolt in Athens: The Greek Communist ‘Second Round’, 1944–1945 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1972); Lars Baerentzen, ‘The Demonstration in Syntagma Square on Sunday the 3rd of December, 1944’, Scandinavian Studies in Modern Greek 2 (1978): 3–52.

30. David Close, ‘Introduction’, in The Greek Civil War, 1943–1950: Studies of Polarization, ed. David Close (London: Routledge, 1993), 7–11 (statistics); Mazower, Inside Hitler’s Greece, 235–261 (Holocaust); Giorgos Antoniou and A. Dirk Moses, eds., The Holocaust in Greece (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020).

31. E. A. Mantziris, ‘The Greeks in South Africa’, in Clogg, Greek Diaspora, 120–136; Nicholas Doumanis, ‘The Greeks in Australia’, in the same volume, 58–86; see also Joy Damousi, Memory and Migration in the Shadow of War: Australia’s Greek Immigrants After World War II and the Greek Civil War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015).

32. David Close, Greece Since 1945: Politics, Economy and Society (London: Longman, 2002), 52, 48 (statistics); see also Mazower, After the War Was Over.

33. Harlaftis, History, 226–245.

34. Harlaftis, Creating, 172–186.

35. Gelina Harlaftis, Greek Shipowners and Greece, 1945–1975 (London: Bloomsbury, 2015), 9–23; Harlaftis, Creating, 231–232, 255, 259, 261, 263, 271–272, 279–284.

36. Vrasidas Karalis, A History of Greek Cinema (New York and London: Continuum, 2012), 79–80; Achilleas Hadjikyriacou, Masculinity and Gender in Greek Cinema, 1949–1967 (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2013), 66–67; Dimitris Papanikolaou, Singing Poets: Literature and Popular Music in France and Greece (London: Legenda, 2007).

37. C. M. Woodhouse, The Rise and Fall of the Greek Colonels (London: Granada, 1985); Othon Anastasakis and Katerina Lagos, eds., The Greek Military Dictatorship: Revisiting a Troubled Past, 1967–1974 (New York and Oxford: Berghahn, 2021).

38. Kostis Kornetis, Children of the Dictatorship: Student Resistance, Cultural Politics, and the ‘Long 1960s’ in Greece (New York and Oxford: Berghahn, 2013), 251–280.

39. See most fully Robert Holland, Britain and the Revolt in Cyprus, 1954–1959 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998).

40. Alexandros Nafpliotis, Britain and the Greek Colonels: Accommodating the Junta in the Cold War (London: Bloomsbury, 2013), 233–237.

Chapter 15: New Ledgers, New Legends

1. James Ker-Lindsay, The Cyprus Problem: What Everyone Needs to Know (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011); Roderick Beaton, Greece: Biography of a Modern Nation (London: Allen Lane, 2019), 346, 370–373.

2. David Close, Greece Since 1945: Politics, Economy and Society (London: Longman, 2002), 161–162, 178–182; Stathis Kalyvas, Modern Greece: What Everyone Needs to Know (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), 140–151.

3. Richard Clogg, ed., Greece, 1981–89: The Populist Decade (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1993).

4. Thanos Veremis, A Modern History of the Balkans: Nationalism and Identity in Southeast Europe (London: I. B. Tauris, 2017), 143–152; Loring Danforth, The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997), 202–212.

5. George Papaconstantinou, Game Over: The Inside Story of the Greek Crisis (English edition privately published, 2016), 30–40.

6. Johanna Hanink, The Classical Debt: Greek Antiquity in an Era of Austerity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2017), 215–229.

7. Sofia Vasilopoulou and Daphne Halikiopoulou, The Golden Dawn’s ‘National Solution’: Explaining the Rise of the Far Right in Greece (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015).

8. Beaton, Greece, 389–398; Yanis Varoufakis, Adults in the Room: My Battle with Europe’s Deep Establishment (London: Bodley Head, 2017); Viktoria Dendrinou and Eleni Varvitsioti, The Last Bluff: How Greece Came Face-to-Face with Financial Catastrophe and the Secret Plan for Its Euro Exit (Athens: Papadopoulos, 2019), 129–310. For an intellectual assessment from within SYRIZA, see Costas Douzinas, Syriza in Power (Cambridge: Polity, 2017).

9. The Guardian (23 October 2020), 30–31 and online.

10. Among many accounts and analyses of the crisis, see Dimitris Tziovas, ed., Greece in Crisis: The Cultural Politics of Austerity (London: I. B. Tauris, 2017).

11. See the website of the European Parliament: parliamentary elections 2019, national breakdown of results: www.europarl.europa.eu /election-results-2019/en.

12. Gelina Harlaftis, Creating Global Shipping: Aristotle Onassis, the Vagliano Brothers, and the Business of Shipping, c. 1820–1970 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019), 1, 7, see also 122–123, 263, 284; ‘Greece Demographics’, Worldometer, www.worldometers.info /demographics/greece-demographics/ (accessed 15 February 2021).

13. Gelina Harlaftis, Greek Shipowners and Greece, 1945–1975 (London: Bloomsbury, 2015), 9–23; Harlaftis, Creating, 231–232, 255, 259, 261, 263, 271–272, 279–284.

14. Simone Tagliapietra, The Politics and Economics of Eastern Mediterranean Gas (Leuven, Netherlands: Claeys and Casteels, 2017); ‘The First Natural Gas Field in Cyprus’, Delek Drilling, www.delekdrilling.com /project/aphrodite-gas-field.

15. Jonathan Clayton and Hereward Holland, ed. Tim Gaynor, ‘Over One Million Sea Arrivals Reach Europe in 2015’, UNHCR, 30 December 2015, www.unhcr.org/uk/news/latest/2015/12/5683d0b56 /million-sea-arrivals-reach-europe-2015.html; Marie Doutrepont, Moria: Chroniques des limbes de l’Europe (Brussels: 180^o Editions, 2018).

Epilogue

1. See the websites of the Hellenic Republic and Republic of Cyprus for results of the 2011 census in each country: www.statistics.gr /en/2011-census-pop-hous; www.cystat.gov.cy/mof/cystat/statistics.nsf /populationcondition_22main_en/populationcondition_22main_en ?OpenForm&sub=2&sel=2. For Greeks outside Greece and Cyprus, see John Koliopoulos and Thanos Veremis, Greece: The Modern Sequel (London: Hurst, 2002), 211; Richard Clogg, A Concise History of Greece, 4th ed., rev. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2021), 228, 276 (estimated numbers and comment); Richard Clogg, ‘The Greek Diaspora: The Historical Context’, in The Greek Diaspora in the Twentieth Century, ed. Richard Clogg (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1999), 1–23 (see 14) (countries).

2. Orthodox Church: Paschalis Kitromilides, Religion and Politics in the Orthodox World: The Ecumenical Patriarchate and the Challenges of Modernity (London and New York: Routledge, 2019). Greek American lobby: George Kaloudis, Modern Greece and the Diaspora Greeks in the United States (Lanham, MD: Lexington, 2018), 186–196.

3. Translated by Karen Emmerich, in Karen van Dyck, ed., Austerity Measures: The New Greek Poetry (London: Penguin, 2016), 410–411.