OTHER ECHINOCOCCUS SPP.

Echinococcus granulosus is a parasite of world­wide public health concern. It typically involves larger canids, and occasionally felids, as defini­tive hosts, and a variety of cervids and bovids as intermediate hosts (Jones and Pybus 2001, Thompson and McManus 2002).

Four other strains currently retained as E. granulosus also are being reevaluated. These include the camel strain (G6) of the Middle East, Africa, China, and Argentina; the pig strain (G7) of Europe, the Russian Federation, and South America; the cervid strain (G8) of North America and Eurasia; and the lion strain of Africa. Thus, in North America, there is the established E. granulosus strain (G1) of a pasto­ral cycle involving dogs and sheep, as well as another strain (G8) of a sylvatic cycle involving wolves, coyotes, and dogs as definitive hosts and a variety of cervids as intermediate hosts, including caribou, moose, elk, white-tailed deer, and mule deer (Leiby and Dyer 1971).

Echinococcus vogeli is a Neotropical species distributed in Central and South America. Adult cestodes occur in bush dogs (Speothos venaticus) and can occur in domestic dogs; the hydatids develop in the liver of pacas (Cuniculus paca) and also occur in agoutis (Dasyprocta spp.), spiny rats (Proechimys spp.), and humans (D’Alessandro et al. 1979, Jones and Pybus 2001). Humans can be infected by ova shed from dogs ingesting hydatids from infected pacas.

Echinococcus oligarthrus definitive hosts are wild felids, including pumas (Puma con- color), jaguarondis (Felis yagouaroundi), jaguars (Panthera onca), pampas cats (Leopardus colo- colo), and ocelots (Lynx pardalis) in Central and South America (D’Alessandro et al. 1981, Jones and Pybus 2001), as well as bobcats (Lynx rufus) from Mexico (Salinas-Lopez et al. 1996). Meta­cestodes are found in agoutis (Dasyprocta spp.), pacas, spiny rats, and occasionally in opossums (Didelphis marsupialis) and cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus floridanus) (D’Alessandro et al. 1981, Jones and Pybus 2001). Rarely, humans have been infected. Echinococcus oligarthrus and E. vogeli are sympatric and use similar intermediate hosts.

Cyclophyllidea: Avian Cestodes

While a number of cestodes affect wild birds (McLaughlin 2008), few cestodes are consid­ered of significance to wild birds. For example, of at least 264 species of both cyclophyllidean and pseudophyllidean cestodes known to para­sitize waterfowl, only 14 have been linked with disease (McDonald 1969).

Two genera of avian cestodes can cause sig­nificant pathology in the definitive host. Both also form cysticercoids in their intermediate hosts. Raillietina is a cosmopolitan genus with more than 200 species, infecting both birds and mammals (Wardle and McLeod 1952).

Davainea proglottina is a species affecting domestic fowl, pigeons, and gallinaceous birds in most parts of the world (Soulsby 1968). The adults lie in the small intestine of definitive hosts. Ripe proglottids are positively phototro­pic and ascend most grass blades, where they and the eggs are swallowed by several genera of slugs. The oncospheres develop into a cys- ticercoid; definitive hosts become infected by ingesting the slugs (Soulsby 1968). Although the adult cestode is small, it can be harm­ful in large numbers, penetrating deeply into the mucosa and producing an enteritis that can become hemorrhagic in heavy infections (Soulsby 1968). Several species of Davainea are reported from waterfowl and upland birds, but there are few reports of pathology in wild­life (Quortrup and Shillinger 1941, Maxfield et al. 1963, Kellogg and Calpin 1971, Davidson et al. 1977, Burt and Burt 1984, Ashfaq and Shinde 1988, Belleau and Leonard 1991).

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